Involvement of Girls and Women in Informal and Non Traditional Employment

Women and Girls in SME and Informal Sector

Between 1990/1991 the informal sector constituted 35 percent of the total employment, a number that has undoubtedly increased in recent years due to high rural-urban migration and lack of opportunities in the formal sector. The Ministry of Labour indicated that in 1997, 30% of the labour force is un-or under employed. Some 60% of the unemployed are young, with unemployment being high among women. The National Informal Sector Survey conducted in Dar es Salaam in 1991, showed that Dar es Salaam had about 315,958 people who were engaged in the informal sector activities (of these, 190,971 were male and 124,587 were females). 13% of the women engage in male dominated trades.

Similarly, a 1995 survey of the informal sector in Dar es Salaam indicates that informal sector had increased by 2.4 percent in the period between 1991/1995 signifying that the informal sector employs almost 1.2 million people of whom 43% are women. It is estimated that there are between 730,000 to 1.2 million women entrepreneurs in the country. In 1991 women accounted for about 35 per cent of informal enterprises. By 1995, it was estimated that the proportion of women in the sector could have risen to 70 per cent of the informal sector labour force.  In a 2000 Economic and Social Research Foundation (ESRF) Study, 55 % of the enterprises in the sample were owned by women. 

Nonetheless Evans-Klock (2005) argues that woman entry into business in Tanzania is a recent phenomenon and prompted by the economic crises and restructuring programs which have reduced formal employment opportunities. Women are predominantly found in informal, micro level, and low-growth sectors, and encounters high competition while earning subsistence incomes. (Rutashobya 2000) Seriously encumbered by their low levels of education, women are unable to find employment in the formal, private sector and are the first to lose their jobs in retrenchment exercises. 

Table 1

Age Distribution of Women across Sectors

Age Groups in Years	Percentage Response from Various Sectors
	Sex	Informal Sector	Textile Manufacturing	Agriculture	Domestic	All Sectors
12-17	4.5	0	0	1.5	48.0	4.5
18-25	5.5	9.5	2.0	2.8	42.0	20.3
26-36	36.0	51,9	77.8	48.9	7.0	47.1
40 +	14.0	38.6	20.2	27.8	3.0	28.1
No of Respondents	200	598	99	44.3	100	1440

Source: Gender Promotion Program (2001)

The Informal Sector Survey of 1991 and the Dar es Salaam Informal Sector Survey of 1995 show that while both men and women were concentrated in labour intensive low capital investment areas, women were further pushed into low skills activities like local brewing and food vending while men engaged in carpentry, carvings, artistic activities masonry or fishing, all of which, require greater skill.  A similar study for the informal sector operators done by the University Consultancy Bureau (1997) confirmed the over-representation of women in the service sector. Lack of employment opportunities, low education attainment, lack of access and control of productive resources have rendered women powerless and helpless thus forcing them to enter into various forms of precarious employments including working in the informal sector. [1] Women choose to engage in MSEs because of push and pull factors as analyzed below: [2] 

Table 2

Push and Pull Factors

Push Factors

Pull Factors

q  To meet basic economic needs; either because she is single and has no formal employment or the spouse’s income is inadequate to meet basic family needs. q  To supplement income from the woman’s salary in order to meet her and her families basic needs. q  Creating a breathing space for the woman. Staying at home all day may invite quarrels with neighbours and family members.

q  To have something she can have control over. q  To raise her social status and earn the respect of her husband and the community. q  To have greater flexibility (compared to employment) to combine work and her household responsibilities. q  To be able to assess credit offered by some donor supported projects.  In these cases, the money borrowed is not used in the business but to meet other pressing needs.

Source:  Women Entrepreneurs in Tanzania: 

University of Dar es Salaam Entrepreneurship Centre (UDEC:2002)

Most Tanzanians are employed in smallholder agriculture.  Outside agriculture the informal sector is by far the most important employer:  A national survey in 1990/1991 showed that 2.4 million people were employed by this sector, of whom 40 percent in the urban areas. That is more than the jobs provided by the country’s formal sector i.e. Government, Parastatal and Private Enterprises. Most of the informal sector employment is self-employment 75% [3] 

Table 3

Informal Employment in Tanzania 1990

	Total	Male	Female
Dar es Salaam	315,558	190,971	124,587
Other Urban areas	634,145	354,526	279.619
Rural Areas	1,419,206	985,526	433,680
Total Country	2,368,906	1,531,023	837,886

Source:  ILO:  Training for work in the Informal Sector by Hans Christian Haan (2001)

  

In the context of an economic crisis and clear decrease in purchasing power, women are increasingly forced to take care of expenditures that are traditionally the responsibility of men and the extended family.  Technical trades are experiencing a rapid expansion due to the decreasing costs of locally produced goods and services as compared with imports. However, men almost exclusively occupy these trades. Few women work in masculine trades like cabinet making, masonry, auto mechanics, construction, carpentry, plumbing, electronics, and steelwork.

Although no formal or legal rules restrict women's access to male professions, women lack the professional qualifications necessary for these trades and have no means to access them. Likewise, market saturation and difficulties in market access have prevented the professional rehabilitation of marginalized women. Consequently, marginalized women are faced with more difficulties trying to regain their financial and social footing. The masculine trades that usually provide better economic opportunities and more prestigious social and professional recognition are essentially off-limits. In addition, in the midst of current economic challenges, women have no place to meet and exchange concerns or develop strategies in response to these issues.

Women’s Education and Employability.

Educational levels determine one’s life and status, level of awareness, knowledge and behavior. There is marked difference in educational attainment between the sexes, especially as age increases. The Tanzania HIV/AIDS Survey indicator 2003/2004 revealed that the educational attainment between male and females becomes greatly different as age increases.[4] Over-representation of women in low paid and unskilled jobs is partly the result of low education attainment. Twenty nine percent of females in Tanzania have never been to school, compared with 20% of males. Those with some primary education account for 35% of females and 41 percent of males.

Girls are under represented at all levels of education, especially technical (6%), university (16%) and advanced secondary school (31%)[5] (MOEC 2000). The informal sector has the highest number of women without formal education i.e. commercial agriculture (23%); textile and manufacturing (22%); and commercial sex work (13%). The survey found that the percentage of females attaining higher education is lower than that of males. For example, the percentage who completed primary school is 31% among females and 33% among males. Six percent of males have attended secondary school compared with 5% females. 

Education attainment is higher in urban areas than rural areas. For example, 16 % of urban men have some secondary education, compared with only three percent of rural men.  Among females, the difference is 13% in urban areas, and 2% in rural areas.  In both urban and rural areas the level of education for women is comparatively lower than that of men limiting their competitiveness into male dominated skills. Accordingly, the number of women who can enter into male dominated skills in both urban and rural areas is far lower in rural areas as compared to urban areas.  

The link between skills education and girls’ access to employment is significant and a critical barrier to girls employment. Traditional gender stereotypes in job opportunity are a reflection of subjects taken at school. Typical subjects taken by girls are nursing, teaching, secretarial duties which influence their future choice of   careers. In a study done by Isaac Mattemu Kithyo and Stephen Petrina (2003) in Kenya, it was found that there was a significant relationship between sex and the programs students choose. Female students chose traditionally female dominated programmes like food and beverage, and secretarial programmes while male students chose programmes that are traditionally considered male dominated trades e.g. building and engineering programs. Girls in male dominated trades study electricity, driving, carpentry and masonry.

A number of sources have observed that the apprenticeship training model is based on an implicit pedagogy that responds to the needs of men and boys, not of girls and women. A study by Nell and Shapirro (1999) on male and female dominated trades indicates that there are more male apprentices than female apprentices because male dominated trades take in more apprentices than female dominated trades with the exception of tailoring. The table shows that males have more access to employment than females both in private and public enterprises; and in informal businesses. Likewise, the number of unemployed is larger for women than men, while the number of men who set up businesses is greater than that of females by almost 50 percent. 

Table 4

Contribution of Business to Apprentice by Trade

 (a sample from Dar es Salaam): 

Note that in rural areas or other urban areas the situation may be slightly different.

	Shelter		Food		Payments		Nothing		Other
	No	%	No	%	No	%	No	%	No	%
Masons	1	3.8	15	57.7	15	57.7	1	3.8	7	26.9
Caterers	0	0.0	12	92.3	4	30.8	1	7.7	6	46.2
Tailors	1	3.7	14	51.9	4	14.8	11	40.7	6	22.2
Welders	1	2.9	24	68.6	11	31.4	6	17.1	11	31.4
Mechanics	0	0.0	24	64.9	10	27.0	5	13.5	8	21.6
Carpenters	0	0.0	21	63.6	11	33.3	5	15.2	8	24.2
Child Care	1	16.7	5	83.3	2	33.3	0	0.0	2	33.3
Hairdressers	0	0.0	11	64.7	3	17.6	0	0.0	2	11.8

Table adopted from: Nell and Shapiro, Traditional Apprenticeship Practice in Dar es Salaam: A Study (1999)

Research suggests that apprenticeship retention and completion rates for women remain persistently low compared to male counterparts. Being primary caregivers women face a number of financial and other constraints that push them out of the apprenticeship training before their completion. In contrast males drop out from apprenticeship training on account of unsteady or insufficient workload at the workshop. In some cases, it assumes that men’s and women’s education level is the same. The lack of prior-learning assessment and recognition create a barrier for women with strong competencies and aptitudes in trades[6].

There are however interesting developments with regards female dominated trades e.g. catering, childcare and tailoring. Increasingly these are owned or operated by men with women become their apprentices or their employees, thereby reinforcing women’s marginalization in these trades. The trends suggest that the practice of delineating female and male dominated skills perpetuates gender inequalities in both entrepreneurship and employment opportunities.

Nevertheless, there are a number of employment opportunities for girls in male dominated trades. Employment discrimination is rare if one is qualified[7]. Depending on the technical skills require some girls can be found working as masons, electricians or mechanics. Female dominated trades seem to create more chances for self employment because the machinery and equipments are affordable. Furthermore, there is a whole issue of cost studies indicate that a good number of apprentices become self employed after training. Relatively traditional apprentices have a higher success rate for set up their own businesses after training than trainees of formal vocational training. However this is more common for young men than women. There was disagreement between the students as to whether employers had gender preference when they hired employees. Some students believed that employers in industry prefer men to women when they hire employees.

Employment rates after training are highest among masons (48%), car mechanics (34%) and welders (32%). Unemployment is particularly high for hairdressers and child minders. Carpenters are more likely to find work in the informal sector.  As for those who set up their own businesses, masons are the most successful followed by car mechanics and welders. In these trades the success rate is 75% of apprentices[8]. While demand for child minders was rated quite highly in Dar es Salaam it constitutes the lowest percentage of apprentices followed by catering services[9].

VETA trainees have a harder time finding employment upon completing their training periods. Studies indicate that it is difficult for VET graduates to penetrate the formal labour market, because employers are suspicious of their qualification. A major problem is that trainees are trained in areas where there is no demand. Moreover most VET providers teach skills that emphasize employment rather than self employment. Marketing is not in built in the curriculum. Further, there is little follow up or job counseling to support graduates[10].  

Women and Girls in Male Dominated Trades

A student at INCOMET 2001 Vocational Training Centre Mafinga responding on why she has decided to join a male dominated course responded: “My father passed away when I was in standard five. He was educated with a nice job. My mother was just a housewife without an education or any skills. She was not able to afford secondary school cost for me after the death of my father.  I would not like children or I to suffer as we are suffering now”. This revelation shows that women need socio–economic empowerment to make them able to undertake a number of task and responsibilities at family and community levels. 

Male dominated activities include trade, politics and power, military, sciences and electronics. Until very recently it was difficult to find women in these fields. Poor quality of education and lack of practical application hinders girls from joining male dominated trades. Inadequate school facilities, gender biased school curriculum, teachers, syllabuses, textbooks and teaching methods promotes passiveness among girls and discourage them to enter into male dominated skills.

NGOs and public authorities have established programs to promote revenue-generating activities for disadvantaged women focus on occupations that have traditionally been seen as "women-appropriate" tasks. Aminata Dieye from Senegal is a typical example of a campaigner for women’s participation in male dominated skills. The approach adopted by Aminata aims at helping break down gender stereotypes, change community attitudes, and empower the female workforce throughout Senegal.

Box 1 Aminata has had strong convictions about human rights and gender equity all her life that stem from the influence of her father, a doctor who volunteered for the Red Cross for over 20 years. She pursued this interest through her university research on the dropout rate among young girls, her participation in numerous conferences and trainings, and her publications on gender and human rights both in Senegal and internationally. At RADDHO, a Senegalese human rights organization, Aminata directed the department dealing with the rights of women and children for six years and later moved on to direct the secretariat charged with the surveillance of human rights and emergency alerts. Aminata's initiative began following a pilot study conducted in 1998 by Mr. Cheik Niang, an anthropologist from Cheik Anta Diop University, in the region of Kolda in which she was involved as a woman’s rights expert. Through the study, Aminata recognized the feasibility of integrating women in masculine trades and began to develop her initiative.

Ms. Jaana Holvikivi, a computer expert working in Tanzania observes that, “Female experts, especially in technical fields, are still rare and that affects the way people react to me as a consultant or expert.[11] “There are, of course, many aspects which make it more difficult to be a woman in male-dominated aid projects. As a Finnish woman I am used to relatively equal relationships with male colleagues. But the men in the development projects are Irish, British, Dutch, and Hungarian and so on, and often I have to work hard to prove that I could be accepted as an equal partner… My competence was not doubted. They just did not want a female professional among them…. When women have valued skills, they feel more confident and become more demanding.”[12]

A study by Alex Odongo in Uganda (2006) followed the lives of three Ugandan girls namely, Proscovia Aciro, Irene Aceng, Stella Lamunu and Mugisha Beatrice Owor abducted by the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) and turned into fighters and rescued by the Uganda Peoples Defense Forces a few years ago[13].  Aciro, Aceng and Lamunu are undergoing rehabilitative vocational training in welding and metal fabrication works at Gulu Youth Development Association (GYDA) Skills Training and Demonstration Centre, while Mugisha completed her training in March. They chose to train in welding and metal fabrication works; a hitherto male-dominated field, because they wanted to become job makers rather than job seekers. "Our sponsors wanted us to do tailoring because that is what other women prefer but we refused," says Aciro.

Aceng is the former wife of the late LRA Brig. Otiting who was killed by the UPDF in 1998, while Aciro is the widow of the late Brig. Odong Matata, a former LRA rebel. She notes, “Skills in metal work and carpentry are more marketable than tailoring. We are looking forward to a bright future: With peace returning to the north, and with these resettlement and recovery programmes, there will be a big market for welding and metal works because people will be building and reconstructing".

Socio cultural barriers to girl’s participation in Skills Training 

In the course of the research an administrator helplessly threw up his hands and exclaimed: "The low enrollments of females in technology courses can be attributed to the attitudes in the society." Culture acts as a major barrier to girl’s entering male dominated trades. Studies show that girls are more attracted to female dominated trades than to male dominated trades mostly on account of cultural beliefs. For example, in Ghana, gender roles and practices are socially prescribed and strictly enforced. Thus, girls grow up wanting to continue with those roles[14]. They are further pressured to continue these roles because of perpetuated beliefs that girls should not break this tradition, as they say in Ghana, ‘obaa ton nyaadoa na oton atuduro’ which means that females should stick to their roles. Also, girls worry that if they chose male dominated trades customers will not purchase their products. Ghanaians believed that only ugly, old fashioned and masculine-featured illiterate females would enter male trades while educated girls would opt for female dominated trades.  

Generally, girls’ participation in male dominated trade is frowned upon. Many studies have found that girls have fears about entering into such trades mainly because of what befalls girls who decide to take these trades. Social perceptions also play a critical role in hindering girls from pursuing these trades. Parents emphasize girls productive and reproductive roles rather than their education.  The lack of support from family- spouses or parents- diminishes a woman’s prospect to access or complete apprenticeships. Many parents still view apprenticeship in non-traditional trades for women as defying social acceptability even in developed countries. Part of the problem lies in the way children are socialized. In most cases their role models tend to be their parents. Even in formal education, women/girls tend to avoid professions that are regarded as more ‘masculine’. Similarly, boys experience the same thing, thus reinforcing resistance at the workplace for jobs that tend to be ‘feminine’[15].

Structural Barriers to girls’ participation in Skills Training

A study carried out in three locations in West Africa found that the numbers of girls/women in male dominated trades was alarmingly small. Geographical differences are significant and may suggest access to facilities or cultural belief. For instance, there are more girls involved in male dominated trades in Accra and Koforidua than in Cape Coast.  In terms of trades, there are more girls in carpentry than in any other trade, followed by electronics and welding. Masonry and mechanics have the least number of girls.  Girls taking carpentry mostly focused on making furniture because they liked art and design.

  

As already noted the duration of MDTs is longer than it takes to complete female dominated trades. In some areas this may be a hindrance to girls’ training. Girls enrolled in training claim that their parents want them to pursue female dominated trades. Thus there is no motivation to break into male dominated trades. Few teachers and masters motivate girls to enter into male dominated trades. This can include judging their abilities based on stereotypes; unequal pay for similar jobs performed by male co-workers; discrimination in the hiring process; and isolating women in the workplace and training sites. Gendered perceptions can result in the ‘de-selection’ of women from these occupations. In one study 45% of respondents preferred girls in male dominated trades not to take carpentry, masonry and welding for fear that it may destroy the girl’s physical beauty.

It is clear from the research that some of the obstacles are systemic. Most parents cannot afford expensive courses and thus the tendency to choose the cheapest courses, which are in most cases, not male dominated trades. Likewise informal sector trainers believe that girls are lazy and that they can only study ‘soft’ male dominated trades because they do not require physical strength. Interestingly, some believe only dumb girls take female dominated trades[16] a finding that correlates with a Canadian study that established that the ‘image’ of the trade had a lot to do with decision parents and their female children made regarding male dominated trades. Some of the views expressed are:

·         That trades are seasonal 

·         Occupations involve hardship and hard labour 

·         These trades are for the less academically inclined and not challenging

·         Trades are dirty and dangerous 

·         The degree of intelligence needed to perform them is basically low

·         Considered second class careers or ‘dead ends’ thus poor career potential, poor mobility etc

·         Great fear of job insecurity because apprentices are often the first to be laid off when business conditions are slow

With respect to the working relationship between boys and girls; or girls and their teachers some girls report being sexually harassed by male counterparts and masters. Studies also, cite a lack of respect and verbal abuse being common in MDTs.

Table 5

Number of Girls Involved in Male Dominated Trades

Trade	Accra		Cape Coast		Koforidua		Total
	#	%	#	%	#	%	#	%
Carpentry/Joinery	8	27	5	50	6	38	19	34
Masonry	1	3	-	-	-	-	1	2
Plumbing	1	3	-	-	1	6	2	4
Electrical/electronics	4	13	2	20	2	13	8	14
Auto Body Works	1	3	2	20	1	6	4	7
Auto Mechanics	-	-	-	-	1	6	1	2
Welding	6	20	-	-	2	23	8	14
Upholstery	2	6	-	-	1	6	2	4

Table adapted from: ILO/IPEC vocational Skills Project: Work-Based, Family and consumer Research in Accra, Cape Coast and Koforidua, Baseline Survey, ILO, 2005

Another reason that limits girls’ access to skills training is the attitude of the master. It is well established that the skills associated with women tend to be undervalued, and defined as non-skills, even when they entail complex actions and thought processes, such as child care, subsistence farming, agro-processing and the like. Most masters are not congenial a fact that repels girls. 200 street girls were interviewed on which trade they would prefer to enter if they had a choice. Their answers provide an indication of the girls’ perceptions about male dominated trades:

Table 6

Trade/Skill Training Preference of Female Street Children

Preferred Trade/Skill	Number of Female Street Children	Percentages
Male dominated Trades	32	16
Female dominated Trades	154	77
Indifferent	14	7
Total	200	100

Table adapted from: ILO/IPEC vocational Skills Project: Work-Based, Family and consumer Research in Accra, Cape Coast and Koforidua, Baseline Survey, ILO, 2005

Additional factors limiting women’s access to male dominated trades include; late exposure, mechanical and technical work; non involvement in the family business; little encouragement from informal mentors; lack of information about where to apply for apprenticeships; and lack of foundational skills and aptitudes normally acquired by men through father to son relationships. Another problem is inadequate promotion and career information targeting women[17]. There is concern that women are not receiving the right information about trades and apprenticeships. Fundamental to increasing the number of women in MDT is changing attitudes and behaviour of stakeholders (Armstrong 1995).The situation is extremely bad to the extent that studies show that despite some success stories, most initiatives aimed at increasing the participation of women in apprenticeship and trades have not succeeded in raising their numbers in apprenticeship programmes. 

[Extracted from a consultancy report titled “Development of Strategies to Provide Girls with Opportunities to Train in Employable Skills: Male Dominated Trades.” GAD Consult and ILO, May 2007. Researched by Mr. Edward H. Mhina [Team Leader], Mrs. Kokuteta Baregu-Mutembei, Mrs. Khalila A Shariff, and Mr. Amanyile Z Mahali.]

---

[1] Ibid.

[2] Women Entrepreneurs in Tanzania:  University of Dar es Salaam Entrepreneurship Centre (UDEC) (2002) (p.9)

[3] ILO:  Training for work in the Informal Sector by Hans Christian Haan (2001)

[4] Tanzania HIV/|AIDS Survey Indicator 2003/2004 (p.10)

[5] MOEC 2000

[6] Accessing and Completing Apprenticeship Training in Canada, Perception of Barriers, Consultation Report, Canadian Apprenticeship Forum, Jan 2004                                                                                                                                                                      

[7] This is the view maintained by District Officials of Temeke Municipality during field work ILO-IPEC 2006.

[8] Traditional Apprenticeship Practice in Dar es Salaam: A study Prepared for VETA and GTZ Tanzania by Nell and Shapiro, Sept 1999, pg.58

[9] Opcit. 

[10] Education and Training for the Informal Sector, Simon McGrath et al, Education Research Paper No. 11, 1994

[11] Working with microcomputer users in developing countries [Cases from Tanzania, Micronesia and the Maldives ] Jaana Holvikivi

[12] Ibid.

[13]Uganda: Tough Women who Venture into Metal Work, New Vision July 3, 2006. Posted on the web on July 5, 2006. Alex Odongo. Kampala.

[14] ILO/IPEC vocational Skills Project: Work-Based, Family and consumer Research in Accra, Cape Coast and Koforidua, Baseline Survey, ILO, 2005

[15] Accessing and Completing Apprenticeship Training in Canada, Perception of Barriers, Consultation Report, Canadian Apprenticeship Forum, Jan. 2004

[16]ILO/IPEC vocational Skills Project: Work-Based, Family and consumer Research in Accra, Cape Coast and Koforidua, Baseline Survey, ILO, 2005

[17] Opcit.