Gender Equity in Primary Education in Tanzania

“Eliminating gender disparities in  primary and secondary education by 2005 and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to (and achievement in) basic education of good quality ”

– Dakar Education for All Goal #5

Overall Context in Primary Education

Primary Education is universal and compulsory for all children from 7 years of age until they complete the primary education cycle. Primary education is intended to equip children with enduring literacy and numeracy, basic life skills, and proper values to enable them function productively in the socio-economic setting of Tanzania, as well as pursue further education and training. Despite numerous efforts undertaken by the government, Tanzania still faces persistent challenges in providing basic education with focus to gender equity. Insignificant differences between girls and boys are observed at first glance on educational statistics.

Girl’s enrolment is almost at par with boys, the dropout rate is similar for girls and boys, and as many girls as boys complete primary schooling. However, an emerging general trend is that in some instances girls perform academically less well than boys. This is an indicator that gender disparities exist in education in Tanzania. None the less regional disparities reveal that girls are not always disadvantaged in all regions or districts. In some cases, the enrolment of girls in primary school is particularly low while the dropout rate is relatively high, while in other parts of the country, the reverse is true. A number of factors contribute to low enrolment, dropout and poor performance of girls relative to boys at primary education. Some of these factors and interventions are dealt with in this chapter.

Financing Primary Education

Primary school appears to receive the largest share of the education sector budget. Budget funds set for primary education are nearly always more than half of the total budget allocated to the sector. This share is observed to have increased gradually between 1995/96 to 1998/99, and started to declined steadily thereafter [as shown in Table 3.1]. The allocations picked up a bit from 2001/02.  Nevertheless, the increase is not very noteworthy, it is only 6.6%.

Table 1

Budgetary Allocation to Primary Education

(Million Shillings)

Financial Year	Total Education Sector	Primary & Non-Formal
		Total	% Share
1995/96	76,504	51,602	67.5
1996/97	92,631	63,519	68.6
1997/98	102,343	68,896	67.3
1998/99	107,457	78,000	72.6
1999/00	138,583	92,845	67.0
2000/01	218,051	144,658	66.3
2001/02	323,864	236,618	73.1
2002/03	396,780	289,718	73.0
2003/04	487,729	361,425	74.1
2004/05	504,745	322,196	63.8

Source: BEST 2005

However, in the 2004/05 budget, the sector’s share dropped to 63.8%. The present allocations are small compared to the share the sector received in 1995/96 [e.g., which was 67.5%]. This has considerable impact in regards to financing of primary education. Allocations to primary education are supposed to increase and not decline. In order to ensure greater access to primary schooling and improve quality of education, more resources to the sub-sector are imperative.

Enrolment in Primary School

Government of Tanzania has taken substantial efforts to ensure that parents enrol their children in primary schools, irrespective of their sex when upon reaching school going age. On the whole parents have become aware on the importance of sending their children to school. Significantly more children are in school than ever before.   

Almost all regions in Tanzania have high enrolment. Kilimanjaro, Mtwara, Mara, Mwanza, Tanga and Mbeya excel by enrolling all children of the required age. Tabora has the lowest enrolment ratio of 70.2%. Data for Zanzibar regions is not presented. Primary schools pupils (Standard I to Standard VI) have nearly doubled in the past 10 years, from 3.8 million in 1995 to 7.5 million in 2005.  According to the 2005/06 Education Sector Budget speech, primary schools have increased from 10’927 in 1995 to 14,257 in 2005 [about 3’330 more or a 30% increase]. On the other hand, most of these schools are remote and thus difficult to reach.  The 2003 PEDP review, shows that the percentage of female pupils has declined slightly from 48.7% in 2002 to 48.5% in 2003. This makes roughly 145’000 girls not accessing primary education in the observed period (PEDP: 2003, pg 9).

  

Children enrolling in primary schools are increasing each year. Total enrolment in primary school reached 7’541’208 in 2005. Number of girls enrolled has increased from 2’169’937 in 2000 to 3’685’496 in 2005. Primary education in Tanzania has achieved relative gender parity. The difference between number of boys and that of girls enrolled is 170,216.  It is noteworthy to take notice that, before the advent of the Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP), gender disparities in enrolment appeared being smaller, but this is not entirely true.

 Introduction of PEDP in 2001 has seen more boys taking advantage of the new opportunities in contrast to girls. This is why there is a slight reversal in gender parity in favour of boys. Gender gap at t his level is not very significant, but it still exists to say the least. The gender gap can be observed also in terms of increased number of boys with each year’s enrolment figures. For instance, in 2000 the difference between the sexes was only 42’536, while in 2004 and 2005; it is 169’419 and 170’216 respectively, in favour of boys.  This trend has to be addressed in order to ensure that by 2015 all children of school age [boys and girls alike], have access to and complete quality compulsory primary education.  [See figure 3.2 above and 3.3 below].

Enrolment in Primary School by Regions

As seen, Tanzania enjoys a relatively balanced enrolment of boys and girls in primary schools across all regions. Apart from Tabora, with net enrolment ratio of 71.5 for boys and 68.7 for girls, and Dodoma with 79.9 percent for boys and 82.3 for girls, all other regions are well over or close to 90 (BEST: 2005). In fact, in regions like Kilimanjaro, Mtwara, Mwanza, Mara, and Tanga, the enrolment ratio is 100 for girls as well as boys. With a GER of 100, it indicates that the education system is healthy, in regards to efforts to enroll all children across the gender divide. In remaining regions, differences in enrolment between boys and girls is insignificant. In a few regions, like Iringa and Morogoro, the enrolment number of girls surpasses that of boys.

Female enrolment fluctuates marginally. Divergence between female enrolment in 2005 and 1982 is 0.5%. Ideally, the enrolment ratio is supposed to increase and not the reverse. More girls were enrolled in Standard VII in 1997 (50.4%), than in 2003 (49.9%). Their enrolment was nearly at par with that of boys. However, it declined somewhat in 2005, as only 48.8% were enrolled. In general, enrolment of girls from Standard one to seven appeared is high and almost at par with that of boys. See Table 3.2. below.

Table 2

 Female Enrolment as Percentage of Total Enrolment

	1982	1987	1992	2003	2005
Standard I	50.1	48.5	48.6	48.5	49.6
Standard VII	44.5	50.4	49.3	49.9	48.8
Standard  I-VII	48.3	49.8	49.1	48.7	48.9

Source: BEST 2005

Data shows that enrolment of girls decreases in the upper grades. Percentage of girls who were enrolled in Standard one in 2005 was 49.9 percent, while it was 48.8 percent in Standard seven in the same year.

Repeaters

Performance in the education system can also be assessed in terms of repetitions and dropouts. In 2004, apart from Standard I and Standard II, more boys and girls were repeating. More female repeaters were observed in Standard IV, than boys. For instance in 2004, the number of girls repeating in Standard IV was 81’163, compare to 78’921 boys. This is significant especially when bearing in mind that it is in Standard IV where children are supposed to sit for their national school leaving examinations in order to complete the first cycle of primary school. As regards to dropouts, more boys drop out in first years of primary school; particularly between Standard I to IV. Nonetheless, the trend reverses from Standard IV to VII, where more girls drop out. For example, in 2004, the number of girls who dropped out in Standard VI was 2’451 compare to 2’263 boys. (MoEC: 2005).  

Performance

At the basic level of education, examinations are administered at Standard IV and at the end of the primary school cycle, in Standard VII. Both examinations aim at assessing acquisition of knowledge, readership abilities as well as skills in mathematics, general knowledge, and languages [e.g., Kiswahili and English]. Overall, the current level of performance indicates that the type of education provided in primary schools is as a whole inadequate. Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) results, which are used in selection of pupils to join secondary school, as one indicator on level of attainment on performance. Proportion of Standard VII pupils who pass their school leaving examinations has nevertheless, increased from 19.3% in 1999 to 48.7% in 2004. Increase in proportion of pupils who pass is challenged by the simultaneous proportion of pupils who fail.  

Table 3

Examination Results Standard VII

Candidates	1999	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004
Passed	426’569	389’746	444’903	492’472	490’018	499’241
Failed	82’419	85’576	110’633	133’674	196’273	243’045
% Passed	19.3	22	24.9	27.1	40.1	48.7

Source: BEST 2005

As observed in the PEDP review conducted in 2003, in both examinations held for Standard IV and Standard VII, girls performed worse than boys. Failure rates were unacceptably high. For instance, in 2002, 72.8% of all candidates in the PSLE (79.9% of girls) failed [e.g., they languished in the lowest grades]. Only 12.2% of candidates were selected for entry into Form I, while 9.5% joined private secondary schools.

Performance varies from region to region. In fact, results for girls do not vary much as those for boys in the Standard IV examinations. Generally, the performance is good for both girls and boys; though the number of boys who pass outclassed girls in almost all regions. Overall, pass rates for Standard IV examination is 85.9 percent in 2004, with regional variations ranging from 95.7% in Kilimanjaro region to 73.8% in Lindi. Regarding number of Candidates who failed in Primary School Examination, the data indicates high number of girls in most regions compare to that of boys. These regions were Dodoma (1’010 girls, 758 boys); Dar es Salaam (7’644 girls, 6’413 boys); Mwanza (8’635 girls, 6’299 boys); Shinyanga (6’646 girls, 5’213 boys). Other regions were Mbeya, Mara, Morogoro, Kagera, Rukwa, and Lindi (BEST: 2005). Normally those who failed are advised to repeat the grade.

Table 4

Standard IV Primary School Examination Results

Region	Candidates Sat			Candidates Passed			Percent Passed	Candidates Failed			Percent Failed
	Male	Female	Total	Male	Female	Total		Male	Female	Total
Kilimanjaro	23’805	23’290	47’095	22’516	22’563	45’079	95.7	1’289	727	2’016	4.3
Dodoma	19458	19926	39384	18700	18916	37616	95.5	758	1’010	1’768	4.5
Mtwara	13'327	12958	26285	12649	12342	24991	95.1	678	616	1’294	4.9
Mbeya	28384	28972	57356	26447	26923	53370	93.1	1’937	2’049	3’986	6.9
Iringa	24021	25105	49126	21801	22986	44787	91.2	2’220	2’119	4’339	8.8
Mara	27500	25511	53011	25308	22482	47790	90.2	2’192	3’029	5’221	9.8
Morogoro	24123	23543	47666	21449	20294	41743	87.6	2’674	3’249	5’923	12.4
Kagera	28191	26944	55135	24706	23304	48010	87.1	3’485	3’640	7’125	12.9
Shinyanga	45940	43911	89851	40727	37265	77992	86.8	5’213	6’646	11’859	13.2
Arusha	16822	15861	32683	14470	13752	28222	86.4	2352	2’109	4’461	13.6
Rukwa	17175	16474	33649	14890	13906	28796	85.6	2’285	2’568	4’853	14.4
Singida	17483	17280	34763	14841	14787	29628	85.2	2’642	2’493	5’135	14.8
Mwanza	46616	44528	91144	40317	35893	76210	83.6	6’299	8’635	14’934	16.4
Pwani	13079	12196	25275	11068	10045	21113	83.5	2’011	2’151	4’162	16.5
Tanga	25575	24402	49977	21138	20334	41472	83.0	4’437	4’068	8’505	17.0
Manyara	16754	16363	33117	13514	13186	26700	80.6	3’240	3’177	6’417	19.4
Ruvuma	18333	18007	36340	14493	14585	29078	80.0	3’840	3’422	7’262	20.0
Dar Es Salaam	34730	35556	70286	28317	27912	56229	80.0	6’413	7’644	14’057	20.0
Kigoma	24539	22703	47242	19009	18674	37683	79.8	5’530	4’029	9’559	20.2
Tabora	18680	16515	35195	14303	12327	26630	75.7	4’377	4’188	8’565	24.3
Lindi	12316	11201	23517	9332	8015	17347	73.8	2’984	3’186	6’170	26.2
Total	496851	481246	978097	429995	410491	840486	85.9	66’856	70’755	13’7611	14.1

Source: BEST 2005

Standard VII examination results for 2005 are not very impressive. Only a few children are selected to join Form I in government secondary schools. However, regions that performed badly are Dodoma, Mwanza, Kigoma, Singida, Shinyanga, Morogoro, Tabora and Dar es Salaam. In each of these regions, the number of girls selected to join Form I was significantly low. For instance, in Morogoro, number of female pupils enrolled in Standard VII in 2004 was 13’147 but only 2’803(21.3%), were selected to Form I compare to 3’550 (27.6%) boys who were selected. Nationally, only 27% of the girls who sat for the PSLE were selected to proceed to secondary school. Regions that fared below this average are: Dar Es Salaam [14%], Kigoma [20%], Lindi [25%], Morogoro [21%], Mtwara [23%], Mwanza [21%], Pwani [23%], Singida [19%], Shinyanga [17%] and Tabora [13%]. Dar Es Salaam and Tabora appear to be the worst regions for girls to be selected for secondary education, while Kagera [40%] and Arusha [37%], provide the best opportunities, with nearly two fifths of girls who sit for PSLE being selected for further education.  

Nevertheless, in some regions number of girls selected to join secondary education surpasses that for boys. Examples of such regions are Kilimanjaro, where the number of girls selected for secondary education is 6’201 (34%) compare to 6’008 (35.2%) of boys, and Mbeya, where the number of girls selected for secondary education is 4’953 (32.3%) compare to 4’940 (31.6%) boys. In nearly all regions, gender disparities are observed in pupils selected to Form I, sometimes in favour of girls, but most often in favour of boys.  

Table 5

Standard VII Leavers Selected to Form I in 2005

Region	Number of candidates			Number of Female Pupils Selected
	Male	Female	Total	Female	As % of all female candidates
Arusha	10414	11081	21495	4104	37%
Dar Es Salaam	17221	18056	35277	2555	14%
Dodoma	10675	11753	22428	3205	27%
Iringa	14156	15550	29706	5635	36%
Kagera	11276	10621	21897	4243	40%
Kigoma	8929	9222	18151	1828	20%
Kilimanjaro	17057	18215	35272	6201	34%
Lindi	4791	4557	9348	1160	25%
Manyara	6422	7055	13477	2394	34%
Mara	15231	13346	28577	3991	30%
Mbeya	15609	15304	30913	4953	32%
Morogoro	12846	13147	25993	2803	21%
Mtwara	7451	7617	15068	1729	23%
Mwanza	23901	20738	44639	4281	21%
Pwani	6231	6107	12338	1434	23%
Rukwa	6509	4923	11432	1475	30%
Ruvuma	9631	10399	20030	2968	29%
Singida	10460	10778	21238	2009	19%
Shinyanga	20904	19428	40332	3276	17%
Tabora	8812	8535	17347	1110	13%
Tanga	11994	12289	24283	4654	38%
Total  (National)	250520	248721	499241	66008	27%

Source: BEST 2005

Underlying Causes of Gender Iniquities in Primary Education

Tanzania is committed to promoting girls’ education at all levels. However, primary education is facing with problems of equity, access, quality and management, which adversely affect girls more than boys. In primary school, girls enroll almost at par with boys. However, when looking into statistics of performance, gender disparities are revealed. Girls generally perform less well than boys and drop out of school more often. For instance, in PSLE, girls consistently get lower grades than their male peers. There is an assortment of reasons to describe this persistence of gender disparities in primary education.

Gender biased socialization in school

While assertive behaviour is promoted among boys, passive behaviour is encouraged among girls. Girls are socialized to perform domestic duties for teachers at school, such as cooking, and fetching water (DBSPE-FAWE-Tanzania: 1999, pg 6). Gender stereotyping of roles and functions among pupils and teachers is very noticeable. In a number of these schools, female teachers are responsible for school environment and health issues (PEDP: 2003). This trend perpetuates beliefs that environmental cleanliness is a responsibility for women. These practices which are more regular in rural primary schools fortify already existing gender inequalities.

Fewer females observed to hold senior positions in regards to school leadership and even in school committees. This also implies the perpetuation of gender stereotype that only men have ability to lead, manage and have power to make important decisions. The study conducted by FEMSA on Female Education in Science revealed that science teachers were encouraging boys to participate in class more than girls. Comments from teachers were that girls were slow in answering questions but they were more concerned with their physical appearance. Classroom observations have shown that very often teachers neglect girls in the classrooms and are more likely to encourage boys to do well than girls (FEMSA: 1997). The tendency of girls not to be assertive or lack of confidence in primary education has its root cause on the way they are treated or socialized at home, at school and in the community. Different from boys who are brought up to be self confident, assertive and courageous, girls are socialized to be passive, docile and to suppress their feelings. Teachers, on the other hand cultivate their traditions and values (with negative perceptions on girls) at school; which in most cases perpetuate gender disparities in favour of boys. In this case, there is high probability that most primary school teachers’ beliefs and practices about gender and the rights of the child either consciously or unconsciously reinforce gender stereotyping behaviours, disrespect of fundamental rights of children. This kind of behaviour happens during teaching and learning process and during extra curriculum activities.

School environment is not girl friendly

Environment in most primary schools (government schools) is characterized by masculine features coupled with physical abuse. In many schools, it has been observed that latrines had neither doors nor hand washing facilities. In some cases, latrines were not separated between girls and boys (PEDP: 2003, pg. 9).

Traditional values and practices

Girl’s education and health is hampered by harmful traditional practices, such as initiation rites, Female Genital Mutilation and early marriages. Such practices expose girls to sexually transmitted diseases, unwanted pregnancies, psychological and emotional suffering. These detrimental traditions and norms have undesirable effects on girl’s education. For instance, in the study conducted by DBSPE and FAWE, girls who perform initiation ceremony are taught readiness for marriage and the language of submission and obedience. Boys are instead filled with the enabling and empowering language of patriotism and heroism. Such differentiation in the teaching of initiation widens gender gap in empowerment[1]. Some customs favour early marriages for girls for fear of premarital sex relations and pregnancies. Main reason for girls’ drop out is early marriage.

Child preference in education

In many communities in Tanzania, parents perceive limited economic benefits to educating daughters. Girls traditionally marry early and leave their families. Many parents are of the opinion that boys are more to contribute financially to family income and support them at their old age. It is the feeling of many parents that girls who attend school can not be available to perform domestic chores and to take care of their siblings. Parents and guardians have strong control as regard children’s education. In most cases parents are uncertain whether to invest in educating their daughters, due to limited expectations on girls. These limited expectations need challenge. As the prime beneficiaries of family assets, boys are favoured in regards to decisions on investing in human capital (DBSPE-FAWE: 1999). In addition, parents worry about wasting money on education of girls who are likely to get pregnant or married before completing their schooling. There is a strong belief in most of Tanzanian communities that once married, girls become part and parcel of another family and their parental investment is lost. In case of limited resources, boys are favoured than girls in the provision of education.

 HIV/AIDS

Prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Tanzania is severely affecting the education sector. Girls are more exposed to HIV/AIDS because they have insufficient control over their sexuality.  Girls are insecure in home, at school and in community at large due to their vulnerability. They are more prone to be seduced, indulged or even forced into sex. This resulted to unwanted and early pregnancy and sexual transmitted diseases including HIV/AIDS. Research and experience has shown that girls begin practicing sex at a fairly low age of 7 years (MoEC: 2001). Sex at a tender age has also contributed to increased school dropouts among girls due to pregnancies and an increased number of deliveries at teenage. These teenage mothers are supposed to be in school. However, as they have missed the chance, they do not have any other option other than starting reproducing at their teen age. Girls are also in charge of taking full care of AIDS victims at home. With this risky and huge responsibility, girls found themselves in a difficult position. The result is poor performance for girls in education and some girls opt to drop out altogether.

Parent awareness

Some parents lack awareness on the importance of educating girls. It is evident that more illiterate parents than the literate ones may not find the need to enroll their daughter in school. Some parents assign their girls with household chores at the time when they are required to be in school, for instance, taking care of their young siblings and cooking (MoEC & DBSPE: 2001).

Shortage of qualified teachers

PEDP review[2] revealed that most of the primary school teachers are under qualified. Moreover, there is lack of qualified female teaching personnel which affect the quality of girls’ education. Female teachers are supposed to act as role model to girls’ pupils. With fewer female teachers than men, girls are denied female role models. Girls are more affected with poor performance of teachers than boys. This is due to that fact that girls may not have time to discuss with their peers outside schools hours or attend extra tuition. Most of Tanzanian cultural practices do not cultivate the habit of girls to mingle freely with boys. While boys have ample time to have group discussions, girls are occupied in household chores.

Dropout

This seems to be problematic in most of primary schools. Dropout rates appeared to be high. It seems to occur in primary education due to various reasons, ranging from truancy to pregnancy. The data shows that there is small tendency for boys to drop out of school than girls (PEDP: 2003). Pregnancy and early marriages among primary school girls is a major concern of drop out in primary school.

  

However, the number of girls dropping out due to pregnancy has remained at a steady level. Some children feel that they do not gain much academically by being in primary schools for seven years. They exit the primary circle with very weak skills. This might also explain the high drop out rates. As indicated in Figure 3.4 below, truancy is a prime reason for pupils dropping out from primary school. However, the number of pupils who dropout due to truancy is decreasing, for example, in 2000 pupils who dropped out was 57741 compare to 32287 in 2005. Other reasons mentioned are pregnancy, and death, though in low proportion.  

Pregnancy

Pregnancy prevents girls from finishing schools. Girls who get pregnant are expelled from school. Pregnancy in most cases considered to be the girl’s fault. PEDP review in 2003 disclosed that in 1998, almost 3,000 primary school girls were expelled from school because of pregnancy. This is equivalent to closing 67 classrooms of 45 pupils per year. Drop out rates of girls appeared to be high because of pregnancy among primary school girls. In Lindi region, for instance, nearly half of children who dropped out were girls. About 175 girls were expelled from school after getting pregnant (PEDP: 2003). Pregnancy among primary school girls remains a major concern in many districts in Tanzania.

Punishment Given in School

It is important to note that many children are displeased with frequent punishment; especially corporal punishment. In most cases, girls suffer more than boys (MoEC: 2001). Most children are aware that punishment given to them can not be justified but they do not have a way to present these malpractices. Hence, they develop hate, and withdraw from school. This results into high drop out rate and truancy. The National Education Corporal Punishment Regulations of 1979 which followed the Education Act deal with corporal punishment as a form of disciplinary punishment for pupils. Under the regulations, punishment means “striking a pupil on his hand or on his normally clothed buttocks with a light flexible stick but excluding striking a child with any other instrument or any other part of the body”. The regulation further states that, corporal punishment should be administered for serious breach of school discipline or grave offences (MoEC: 2001). The strokes must not exceed 6 strokes on any occasion[3].

Determinants of Gender Iniquities in Primary Education

There are various determinants as regard to gender inequities in primary education. Most of these determinants hinder enrolment, retention and performance of pupils in school with focus on the girl child. The most prevalent are poverty and HIV/AIDS.

Poverty

In the report titled Situation Assessment on Programme for Enhancing the Gender and Management Capacity for Education Managers in Makete and Ludewa in Iringa Region, 2001, it was revealed that the deepening economic recession and external debts crisis in mid 1980’s forced Tanzania to adopt structural adjustment policies resulting into cut back in public services. This had a negative impact on poor people, especially women and girls. Enrolment and retention in schools decline due to removal of subsidies in education. Some parents lack awareness on the relevance of education to the girl child. This results in low enrolment and retention. For a poor family, their preference is to send children (particularly girls) to assist in farm work or in household chores rather than sending them to school. In the eyes of most parents school does not provide children with adequate life skills. As experienced earlier, where resources are scarce girls are unlikely to access or complete education.

HIV/AIDS

Primary school children constitute the future generation for the national dependable for providing the human resource for national development. However, AIDS appeared to be a behavioural problem. Available behavioural data indicated that unprotected sexual relations are taking place in youths, including primary school children and their teachers; this was mostly captured in PEDP review, 2003.

In the Educational Sector HIV/AIDS Strategic Plan (2003-2007), it was observed that girls are always victims to male teachers at schools. In most cases, teachers intimidate young girls who refuse to have sex with them. Male teacher who seduce these may even make girls fail in exams, in case of girls who deny the hideous act. Due to their cultural background, most girls lack confidence to say ‘No’ to these male teachers. Eventually, they are trapped and in some cases fail victims of HIV/AIDS. This tendency exacerbates the transmission of HIV/AIDS. For those girls who are coming from poor families, having intimate relationship with their male teachers, seem to be of an advantage, as girls could get some small gifts. This reciprocity nature of sexual activity place girls at high risk of HIV/AIDS and plays a major role in sustaining the AIDS epidemic.

Measures and Interventions on Gender Iniquities in Primary Education

Under achievement among girls vis-à-vis boys is a matter of serious concern, in view of the Government’s policy and commitment, as well as donors and various NGOs to address the issue of equality and quality; some measures were taken to ensure that gender inequities in primary education is absolutely eliminated.

Government Interventions

Universal Primary Education (UPE)

Universal Primary education remains at the core of attempt to achieve Education for All (EFA). Tanzania being a member of the world community is committed to implement agreed international commitments which include among other things to ensure that by the year 2015 all children particularly girls have access to and complete compulsory education of good quality (BEMP: 2001). Another important commitment as regard to this study is to eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005 by ensuring GIRLS’ full and equal access to good quality basic education.

Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP)

Primary Education Development Programme (2002-2006) was introduced by the Government of Tanzania with the aim of increasing enrolment in Primary education delivery. PEDP forms a key element of the Government’s programme of Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS), standing alongside major reforms across the social sector. Public Sector reform, Local Government Reform and Public Finance Management Reform constitute the major strategic vehicles in this process (PEDP: 2003).One among the objectives of PEDP is to ensure gender equity in primary education.

Education Training Policy (1995)

This policy has a specific chapter which addresses access and equity issues within education. The policy defines access to education as opportunities available to the intended population (girls and boys). Equity was defined as fairness availed in the allocation and distribution of education resources to various members of communities in the country. Access is interpreted as the number or type of chances that are provided to young boys and girls in order to educate themselves, while equity could be interpreted as the proportion of these chances that are provided to boys compared to girls (MoEC: 2001).

The Gender Coordinating Unit (GCU)

The Gender Coordinating Unit was formed in 1994 to coordinate gender activities across all departments of the MoEC. SIDA and UNESCO have assisted with funds to operationalise the tasks of the GCU. The GCU is responsible for training teachers in guidance counseling techniques and it has also worked with some NGOs such as TGNP to engender the current education and training policy.

The formation of the GCU was followed by a series of training seminars in gender planning sponsored by

SIDA. MoEC personnel drew up gender objectives for their respective departments; know as the 'Elimu Guidelines'. Their recommendations included such actions as gender sensitizing parents on the importance of girls' education, guidance and counseling for all children, and introduction of a 50/50 male to female teacher ratio.

Basic Education Master Plan (BEMP) 1997-2002

The BEMP was designed to chart out way forward on policy interpretation, strategy formulation, assessment of realistic programme targets, management, monitoring and implementation structures and operations. Among objectives of BEMP include to raise completion rates for Standard I-VII; to ensure equitable access to primary schooling, by geographical and gender reaching (MoEC: 2001).

Abolition of School Fees

In 2001, His Excellency, President Benjamin Mkapa, announced the removal of charges for Primary Education; free and compulsory education (Hakielimu: 2005).  The impact was remarkable, as hundreds of thousands of children have the chance to schooling. According to Education Management Information System (EMIS), in 2002, enrolment in Standard I leapt to 1.63 million, an increase of 43%, doubtless much influenced by the abolition of school fees. These interventions provide chance to poor parents who could not afford education fees to send their children to school. As mentioned earlier, in most cases where parents are in scarce resources education for girl are always sacrificed. With abolition of these charges, girl children have ample opportunity of being enrolled in primary schools.

Specific guidelines and checklists for mainstreaming cross-cutting issues

The Ministry of Education and Culture (MoEC) is committed to improving the quality of education in Tanzania. In this context the Education and Training Policy (1995) identifies three important cross-cutting issues that must be considered in all educational planning: gender, HIV/AIDS and environment. In order to address this challenge the Basic Education Development Committee (BEDC) established the Cross-Cutting Issues Technical Working Group (CCITWG) in 2003 and mandated it to develop Guidelines and Checklists for mainstreaming Cross-Cutting Issues in MoEC[4].

These guidelines and checklist were to be used by MoEC departments and core institutes to effectively ensure that the cross-cutting issues are thoroughly taken into account and become part of the fabric of the education system. They were intended to be used within the context of specific MoEC strategic plans (MoEC: 2004). One among general guidelines developed was to promote the recognition of gender equality as an essential part of democracy and human rights and pre-condition for successful development in the education sector (e.g., in policies, strategies, goals, and indicators on enrolment and quality improvement). Specific guidelines were designed to guide implementation of interventions that target different sub-sectors within the education sector. Specific guidelines include:

·         Ensure that the provision of education at all levels acknowledges and addresses cross-cutting issues differentials between male and female.

·         Ensure that education is equally available to all male and female students free from any forms of discrimination based on sex, vulnerability or any aspect of socio-economic or health status.

·         Eliminate eligibility criteria or entry requirements and qualifications that discriminate against any student at all level.

·         Ensure that conflicts between existing culture and education policy related to education of male and females are systematically addressed and eliminated.

·         Eliminate male and female discrepancies in enrolment, retention and completion at all levels.

·         Address and eradicate any culture-based biases, which impact negatively on enrolment, participation and achievement of female and male students.

·         Ensure that attendance is compulsory and is monitored and enforced equally for both male and female students.

·         Ensure that textbooks, teaching and learning materials and methodologies are gender sensitive and free from any discriminatory factors.

·         Ensure that learning environment is gender sensitive and responsive to other cross-cutting issues.

·         Promote the use of non-sexist and non-discriminatory language, examples and behaviour in the classroom.

·         Ensure that composition of management teams at all of the education system reflects fair gender representation.

·         Ensure that financial and opportunity costs for parents to send their children to school do not increase gender differentials on average education costs at all levels.

Complementary Basic Education in Tanzania (COBET)

In the framework of the Education Sector Development Programme, Complementary Basic Education in Tanzania (COBET) was initiated by the Ministry of Education and Culture, with support from UNICEF, in selected wards in five districts between 1999 and 2000; as one way of providing basic education to children who have dropped out of school or who never entered primary education.  These districts were Masasi, Kisarawe, Songea Rural, Musoma Rural and Ngara. COBET aims at providing basic education to girls in particular. The first two districts where COBET was introduced were Masasi and Kisarawe (UNICEF: 2001).

In the Research Report titled Girls’ and Boys Education in Masasi and Kisarawe Districts; research conducted by UNICEF, MoEC and Kuleana in 2001, it was revealed that in both Masasi and Kisarawe, 10 COBET centers were established in 1999, as one way to provide basic education to children out of school, with the aim of reaching girls. Though COBET was more intended for girls but only one third of the pupils registered in COBET were girls in these particular districts. The out of school children whom COBET caters for are children who have never entered primary school and children who have drop out of school. After completing COBET program, the children have the chance to continue with their education in a formal way.

Among the characteristics of COBET is that children registered have no direct costs, do not wear uniforms, and school days are shorter. The COBET curriculum is designed to cover the essential content of primary education and to suit the life and needs of the learners. It contains five main subjects: language (Swahili and English), Mathematics, General Knowledge, Vocational Skills and Personality Development. The Curriculum entails three year cycle, which after this the children perform a placement test so that they can be enrolled at a suitable level; either in primary school for cohort I (age 8-13) and in secondary school for cohort II (age 14-18). Community members are much involved in selection of out of school children to be registered by COBET (UNICEF: 2001)

Gender and Participation in School Activities

Tanzania has given guidelines on representations in school committees and boards. In primary schools, where a school committee has to have five members, two among them have to be women. Similarly women are supposed to participate fully in school constructions committee and in secondary school boards. This is expected to send a signal to the communities that education was for both men and women. This would give positive models to children, particularly girls.

Removal of Gender Stereotypes

In the study performed by Omari C. and Mbilinyi D. titled “Women Images in Mass Media”, published by Dar es Salaam Publications, 1995, it indicates that Tanzania Institute of Education which is responsible for curriculum development and the supply of school materials has conducted studies on gender imbalance, and sex role stereotype in school materials. In these studies in particular, it was observed that gender stereotypes come in almost two ways. At one level, the girl child was depicted as in pictures as fragile, unproductive, inexperienced, childish, feminine, incapable, and withdrawn. The boy child, on the other hand was shown as leader, aggressive ambitious, analytical, assertive, dominant, forceful, independent, masculine, self reliant and self sufficient, strong personality and willing to take risks. At another level, the case revealed the treatment which girl child receive in the classroom and the school compound in general such as not being questioned often during learning process in class as it is for the boys; not being asked challenging questions, often reserved for boys; being ridiculed and treated sarcastically when she could not respond to a question; and being sent for non academic tasks such as to cook or fetch water for teachers and visitors.

Tanzania government has been waging a campaign to free school systems and community at large, of these anomalities, and negative attitudes and labels to the girl child. Textbooks are examined and school committees are encouraged to fight against these negative portrayals. This requires improved advocacy and consensus building in communities and schooling institutions. Success seems to be reflected in the improved gender participation rates.

Pregnant and Married Girls

One area that has been difficult to handle is concerning girls who get married or become pregnant while schooling. Despite research and strong advocacy from women groups, the government has stuck to the regulation which expels pregnant girls. Reasons given include reluctance to condone culturally unacceptable behaviours, providing wrong model to others, and inability to cope with studies. With this reality, the education system has resorted to: provide guidance and counseling to minimize the incidence of early pregnancy; and, strong penalties for male culprits, with boys being expelled as well when identified, adults being imprisoned, and teachers being reprimanded, demoted or transferred. These measures are supposed to mitigate these incidences of early pregnancies and marriages for school girls. Other measures taken to address some of these gender issues include:

·         TUSEME Project aiming at empowering girls and building their confidence through drama so as to be able to speak openly and confidently about their adolescent problems and identify solutions to these problems. About schools are participating in the project as it is being mainstreamed; FAWE Centers of Excellence; Gender Desk Officer in the Ministry of Education; Science, Mathematics and Technology Camps; AND, FEMSA

NGOs Interventions

Hakielimu

Hakielimu was founded in 2001. It seeks to promote “Public participation in education governance”. Its mission is to enable ordinary women, men and young people across the country without discrimination to play an active role in making education and development work for them and their communities. Hakielimu has three main programmes. These are Community Governance, Public Engagement and Policy Analysis and Advocacy. In some of these programmes, Hakielimu works with other partners and is one of the founder members of TEN/MET (http://www.tenmet.org/our-donors.html). HakiElimu provides financial support to TEN/MET and has recently pledged to make an annual grant of TShs 10mn towards implementation of TEN/MET’s Strategic Plan. The objectives of HakiElimu are to promote a culture and practice of human rights, democracy and good governance in education and society. They have started their activities in four districts: Serengeti, Bunda, Ukerewe and Temeke. The focus is on enabling communities and the general public to be informed, to monitor implementation and to exercise demands and accountability from decision-makers with the view to ensuring the success of the education sector reform. The programme is therefore complementary to the efforts of the government to develop the basic education sector.

TEN/MET

Tanzania Education Network (TEN/MET) was founded in April 1999 by 39 NGOs. The network has over 171 members composed of NGOs, CBOs and other International organizations who are concerned with promoting education in Tanzania. TEN/MET seeks to address educational challenges in order to ensure that PEDP is effectively implemented and progress is made towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It works with partners to address challenges by implementing education policies through; communication and information; capacity building; policy debate and advocacy; and monitoring impact of policy at district level (http://www.tenmet.org/our-donors.html, 2004).

The Commonwealth Education Fund (CEF)

The Commonwealth Education Fund (CEF) in Tanzania started in 2002 with the aim of supporting Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) to engage more effectively with the government (especially the Ministry of Education and Culture) in terms of policies and practice related to education planning, management and delivery of quality education for all children. Since mid-2003, it has extended its support to CSOs in four strategic programme areas, namely capacity strengthening of CSOs involved in education, monitoring education finances, support to innovative work around exclusion or inclusion (such as Non-Formal Education, disability or gender-related) as well as influencing government policy and practices in Early Childhood Development (ECD).  The Fund was originally conceived to run to the end of 2005, but it has now been extended to mid 2007. The first Strategic Plan ended early 2005 and a revised plan is now in place. This revised Strategic Plan is based on the review of the key objectives of CEF and a comprehensive evaluation process carried out in the last months of 2004 and in early 2005 (http://www.tenmet.org/our-donors.html, 2004).

SIDA

In January 2003, the Government of Tanzania and the Government of Sweden signed a new agreement amounting to SEK 455 million in support of PEDP for the period 2003 - 2006. The funds are supposed to be disbursed through the Pooled Fund Mechanism. In addition to the government-to-government support to PEDP; the Embassy of Sweden is supporting a national civil society organisation (CSO) HakiElimu since November 2001. (http://www.swedenabroad.com/pages/general.asp, 2006).

Progress on Addressing Gender Disparities in Primary Education

The government of Tanzania has taken certain initiatives to address inequity in education. The Education and Training Policy (1995) has a more comprehensive gender perspective than in previous policy documents. As mention earlier, various measures were taken to address gender disparities in primary school. These interventions have led to some positive results. Tanzania launched UPE in 1974. At the height of the UPE drive Tanzania achieved a gross enrolment rate of 98% and gender disparities in primary education, which existed for quite a long time was reduced. Currently, primary enrolment is characterized by gender parity (BEMP: 2001). Due to the implementation of PEDP in 2004, 1,368,315 children were enrolled in Standard one, equal to 83.4% to reach the target of PEDP of 1,640,969 children. These include 697,594 boys and 670,721 girls. Among these, government schools had 1,361,446 and private schools had 6,869 (MoEC: 2005). As observed, gender gap was narrowed.

PEDP has led to the increase in proportion of girls enrolling in Standard one. Data shows that, PEDP has a positive impact on girls’ enrolment. According to PEDP review conducted in2003, nationally, proportion of girls enrolling in Standard one rose from 48.1% to 48.5% in 2003. Districts level data shows even more dramatic increases in girl’s enrolment. For instance, in Lindi Rural District, the proportion of girls enrolling in Standard one rose from 34.6% in 2001 to 47.5% in 2002 and to 50.8% in 2003. In Arusha, the proportion of girls enrolling in Standard one rose from 44.6% in 2001 to 49.5% in 2002 and to 50.4% in 2003. In most schools, efforts have been made by teachers in the division of roles whereby pupils were assigned work regardless of their sex, thus breaking the traditional mentality that there are tasks for boys and other for females (PEDP: 2003). Teachers in most primary schools assign both girls and boys to clean classrooms and toilets, as well as dig waste. PEDP review of 2003 disclosed gender equity in leadership positions in various schools assessed. Some schools have equal numbers of boys and girls in school leadership positions. Selection of school prefect, assistant prefect and class monitor considers gender equity. Efforts on improving school environment are evident. In many schools, several activities for improving school environment were undertaken in a way of construction of new and attractive classrooms, planting shade trees and flowers as well as observing general cleanliness of school surroundings. A lot of attempts have been made to accelerate availability of latrines for girl and boy pupils. Every school is supposed to indicate the changes accomplished so far. Indicators include enrollment data, Achievement data, Attendance records, Exam results, disaggregated information by sex age and level of pupils, data on gender, HIV/AIDS and environment.

There is increased awareness to the establishment of gender responsive schools. In these schools academic, social and physical environment and its surrounding community are holistically gender responsive. This implies that teachers, parents, community leaders and members, boys and girls are all aware of and practice gender equality.  In addition, the school management system, its education policy and practice recognize and address gender based needs of both boys and girls. The academic delivery including teaching methodologies, teaching and learning materials, classroom interaction and management of academic processes is also gender responsive. The students both girls and boys, are empowered to practice gender equality and protect the democratic and human rights of both sexes. The physical environment in school buildings, furniture, and equipments is also gender friendly. Advocacy and community participation including garnering support for new policies and arriving at a national consensus on the importance of girl’s education and the recognition of a need for a paradigm shift in many accepted norms and traditions has been improved. A participatory approach in the preparation and implementation of education plans through the sector wide programme has been implemented involving all stakeholders including local government institutions, development partners, and civil organizations.

The 2001 Sexual Offences Special Provision Act (SOSPA) was an amendment to the penal code to make it more amenable to the protection of girls and women from sexual abuse and exploitation, domestic violence, early marriages, adolescent preganancies, etc. The Act made the code more gender sensitive especially in the aspects of definition of rape, the age of consent, judicial proceedings, collection and giving of evidence, redress and sentencing. UNGEI partners and other stakeholders are actively involved in engaging the government in policy dialogue according to the mandate and comparative advantage of each partner, as well as mounting advocacy drives through the media and direct engagement with communities at grassroots level. They also provide financial and institutional support to both the government and civil society organizations.

Scaling Up Gender Equity in Primary Education

Need exists to promote gender equity in distribution of resources in primary schools. This could be achieved by ensuring that school committees create qualitative school plans for addressing cross cutting issues, for instance, interventions on HIV/AIDS, internal and external environment and creation of gender parity and embed these into school development plans. Community should be sensitized on one hand and quality improvement at school on the other, so that attitude towards girl’s education is reversed. Education should have equal importance to girl as it has to boy children. There is also a need to mobilize education stakeholders, especially communities to work out mechanism for identifying and enrolling school going age children, with more emphasize to gild child.  Various interventions have been made so far to counteract gender disparities in assurance that girl child has same status and benefit with educational opportunities as equal as boy child. There is a need to scale up gender equity in primary education so as to ensure that good practices as concerned to interventions are spearheaded.

One among good practice of intervention to assure gender parity in education is the establishment of COBET programme. COBET is a means of providing less formal basic education for older male and female children and young adults who for one reason or another have not enrolled in primary schools. Even Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper (PRSP) strategically targets the expansion of adult education as a desirable investment. There is a need to expand COBET programme; so as to reach a good number of girls who have dropped out or miss for various reasons primary schooling. In order to launch and extend COBET Progarmme at any significant scope, there should be careful planning of resources and the target should be on the areas where more girls are of disadvantage of basic education. For instance, COBET would be more appropriate in Lindi region, where nearly half of children who dropped out were girls. About 175 girls were expelled from school after getting pregnant. As mentioned earlier in this chapter that drop out rates of girls appeared to be high because of pregnancy among primary school girls. COBET would be ideal alternative to these girls who can enroll and attend classes along with their children.

[Extracted from a report titled: “Gender Disparities in Primary and Secondary Education. Analysis Report” April 2006. By Edward H. Mhina. FAWE Tanzania – GAD Consult]

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[1]                “Of Case Studies on Poverty Reduction, Equity, Empowerment and Access to education for primary School Pupils, & Teachers in Mbulu and Bunda Districts” Conducted by FAWE, 1999. DBSPE, Ministry of Education and Culture.

[2]           “ Joint Review of The Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP)”, Conducted in 2003 by Team of  Consultants; MoEC

[3] Female pupils may only receive punishment from female teachers. Where there is no female teacher then with a written   authorization from the head of school, a male teacher may administer the punishment.

[4] Guidelines and Checklists for Mainstreaming Cross-cutting Issues in the Ministry of Education and Culture were developed by Cross-Cutting Issues Technical Working Group (CCITWG) in 2003 with the support of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).