“At the primary school level, the enrollment figures for girls many be comparable to those for boys but as one goes up the education ladder, the proportion of girls drops rapidly. The girls also tend to drop out more and in greater numbers due to a myriad of factors”
– Girls’ Education and Poverty Eradication: FAWE’s Response.
Overall Context in Secondary Education
Secondary education occupies a strategic place in the education and employment systems. It influences primary education systems, providing motives for many students to remain in school, and it feeds graduates into the tertiary and higher education sectors. Structurally, secondary education in Tanzania Tanzania
According to Universal Secondary Education (USE), the government of Tanzania
Table 1
Number of Secondary Schools
Type of Secondary School | Year | |
2000 | 2005 | |
828 | 1,206 | |
463 | 549 | |
Total | 1,291 | 1,755 |
Students in Form I | 147,490 | 180,239 |
Students in Form I – Form V | 401,598 | 489,942 |
Students in Form I – Form VI | 432,599 | 524,325 |
Source: BEST 2005
As regard to transition from primary education to secondary education, statistics revealed remarkable changes in recent years, particularly from 2002 and 2004. As Figure 4.1 indicates, the ratio of children from primary schools was somehow proportion to number of secondary schools in 1961, whereby the transition rate was 35.3%. This means there was good number of secondary schools to accommodate the qualified children from primary schools. Then after, transition rate appeared to decline and reach 9.8% in 1983. More emphasize during this period was in primary school than it was to secondary schools. Even those qualified to enter were denied the chances due to scarceness of secondary schools. From 1989 hitherto, transition rate observed to increase. From this period, more efforts were committed to increase number of secondary schools. With joint efforts from Government, NGOs, community (parents), private individuals and religious bodies, a good number of secondary schools were visible to make sure that transition from primary to secondary schools goes smoothly and impressively. This justifies the increasing transition rate from 20.3% in 2002 to 35.3% in 2004.
According to Medium Term Strategic Plan (2002-2006), factors which contribute to under-achievement include shortage and poor quality of teachers, poor management and motivation, shortage of teaching and learning materials. Generally, most schools lack basic instructional facilities like laboratories, laboratory equipments and materials and libraries. Securing access to secondary schooling has in these recent years reached crisis point. Current Hakielimu Report (2006) disclosed that about 61.9% of those who passed standard VII from 14 regions have failed to join secondary schools. Some regions are more affected than others. For instance, Dar es Salaam
Unlike Uganda and Kenya , Tanzania Uganda sends almost double the proportion to secondary schools and Kenya
Financial allocation to secondary education has fallen over the period. As revealed in Table 4.2, Budget allocation in secondary school is very low and the shares of the budget were decreasing from 9.8% in 2000/01 to 6.7% in 2003/04. However, there was sharp increase in budget allocation 2003/04 from 32’464m Shs to 92,045m Shs in 2004/05. The share also show some increase from 6.7% in 2003/04 to 18.2% in 2004/05.
Table 2
Budget Allocation in Secondary Education (In million Shs)
Financial Year | Total Education Sector | Secondary | ||
Total | % Share | |||
2000/01 | 218,051 | 21,453 | 9.8 | |
2001/02 | 323,864 | 24,359 | 7.5 | |
2002/03 | 396,780 | 29,876 | 7.5 | |
2003/04 | 487,729 | 32,464 | 6.7 | |
2004/05 | 504,745 | 92,045 | 18.2 | |
Source: Public Expenditure Review 1988-2005
Enrolment in Secondary School
Number of students enrolled in secondary schools from 2001 to 2005 has doubled from 289699 to 524325, an increase of 81%. Enrolment of secondary students in first cycle (O-level) has increased considerably from 254892 in 2001 to 489942 in 2005, an increase of 92.2%. While in second cycle (A-level), the increase was only by 38.6%. The difference between students enrolled in O-level and that of A-level is big. For instance, the difference in 2005 between those two levels was 455,559. This implies that most students were dropped on transition from O-level to A-level. Teaching staff which are vital in the process of learning has also shown an increase, from 14352 in 201 to 23905 in 2005, an increase of 66.6%. Increase in number of teachers was a deliberate effort of the government to ensure that the number of teaching staff goes proportionally to the number of students.
Table 3
Government and Non – Government Secondary Schools Students
LEVEL | 2001 | 2005 | Difference | % increase |
Form 1 - 6 | 289699 | 524325 | 234626 | 81.0 |
Form 1 | 83509 | 180239 | 96730 | 115.8 |
Form 4 | 49950 | 75733 | 25783 | 51.6 |
Form 5 | 13090 | 18893 | 5803 | 44.3 |
Form 6 | 11717 | 15490 | 3773 | 32.2 |
Form 1 - 4 | 254892 | 489942 | 235050 | 92.2 |
Form 5 - 6 | 24807 | 34383 | 9576 | 38.6 |
No. of Schools | 937 | 1745 | 808 | 86.2 |
No. of Streams | 8270 | 13168 | 4898 | 59.2 |
Teaching Staff | 14352 | 23905 | 9553 | 66.6 |
Source: BEST 2005
As regard to female students’ enrolment, Table 4.4 indicates that enrolment in Form I is near to parity especially from 2003 (48.2%) and 2005 (49.1%). Attainment of near parity for female students at both primary and secondary level is undoubtedly due to deliberate policies by the Tanzania
The proportion of girls who were enrolled in Form I in private schools was higher than that of government, particularly in 2003 (50.1%) and 2004 (49.8%), while the enrolment in government schools was 46.6% in 2003 and 48.8% in 2005. The enrolment rate decrease as in transition to upper level. The same trend appeared in enrolment in Form IV, whereas, number of girls enrolled in 2003 and 2005 were 46.4% and 46.8% respectively. Whereby, in government schools the percentage of girls enrolled were 43.4 in 2003 and 42.1 in 2005. This implies that girls have benefited a lot with the introduction of private schools; as more girls were enrolled in those schools in comparison to the government schools.
In upper level, gender disparity is evident. Only 35.3% of girls were enrolled in 2003 in Form V. The increase in enrolment was not high either in 2005; only 36.8% of girls were enrolled in that level. The same case was observed in Form VI, about 33.5% of girls in 2003 and 36.3% in 2005 were enrolled. The difference between female students enrolled in Government schools and those enrolled in private schools does not vary much. However, the case was reversed, in such that more girls were enrolled in government schools than in private schools.
Table 4
Female Enrolment in Secondary Schools (in %)
Secondary Education | 1982 | 1987 | 1992 | 2003 | 2005 |
Form I | 36.8 | 42.2 | 45.6 | 48.2 | 49.1 |
Government | 33.8 | 37.6 | 43.3 | 46.6 | 48.9 |
Non-Government | 40.1 | 45.5 | 47.2 | 50.1 | 49.8 |
Form IV | 33.3 | 39.3 | 42.8 | 44.5 | 43.9 |
Government | 31.1 | 33.8 | 40.0 | 43.4 | 42.1 |
Non-Government | 35.8 | 43.5 | 45.2 | 46.4 | 46.8 |
Form I - IV | 35.3 | 40.8 | 44.7 | 46.6 | 47.3 |
Government | 32.7 | 35.9 | 42.2 | 44.6 | 46.8 |
Non-Government | 38.2 | 44.4 | 46.5 | 49.4 | 48.4 |
Form V | 22.2 | 19.4 | 27.3 | 35.3 | 37.8 |
Government | 22.7 | 19.7 | 29.2 | 36.4 | 38.2 |
Non-Government | 18.8 | 18.4 | 23.6 | 33.9 | 37.4 |
Form VI | 23.2 | 20.8 | 24.3 | 33.5 | 36.3 |
Government | 23.2 | 21.6 | 26.0 | 32.8 | 37.4 |
Non-Government | 24.3 | 18.4 | 20.4 | 34.4 | 34.9 |
Form I - VI | 34.5 | 39.6 | 43.2 | 45.7 | 46.6 |
Government | 31.7 | 34.4 | 40.7 | 43.9 | 46.4 |
Non-Government | 38.0 | 43.7 | 45.6 | 48.2 | 47.2 |
Source: BEST 2005
In 2005, number of students enrolled in secondary schools was 524,325. It is estimated that by 2010, the number of students completing Form IV and Form VI to be more than 600,000 a year. The number of girls in secondary schools is increasing gradually. In fact, has increased twice as much, from 120,248 in 2000 to 244,571 in 2005. Comparatively, number of male students is higher to that of female and gender gap still persists, as shown in Figure 4.2. The difference between number of boys and girls enrolled in 2004 was 32,673 and in 2005 the difference was 35,183 students. The gender gap seems to increase each year. For instance, in 2000, the gap between female and male students was 21,400; in favour of male students. However, in 2003 the gap was 29,715 and in 2005 the gap was 35, 183. If this trend continues, gender parity in secondary education will be widening up instead of being eradicated.
In Secondary Schools upper level, from Form V to Form VI, number of girls has increased from 7,945 in 2000 to 12,763 in 2005, an increase of 60.6%. However, gender disparity is evident at this level. The gap between number of boys and girls in upper level is very significant. The number of girls is just half of the total number of boys enrolled in Form V and Form VI. For instance, in 2000 number of male students enrolled in Form V and VI was 15,757 while that of Female students was 7,945 (33.5%) in the same year. In 2005, the same pattern was observed, 21,620 male students were enrolled, whereas only 12,763 (37.1%) female were enrolled. The increase in number of boys in each year is significant, compare to the increased number of girls. For instance, between 2003 and 2004, number of boys has increased by 3,226. Between 2004 and 2005, the increase was 1,384 boys’ students at upper secondary level.
However, the increase in number of girls was considerably low. For instance, between 2000 and 2001, the increase was only 291 female students. The level of increase was about 526 between 2001 and 2003 but fall drastically to 182 between 2002 and 2003. Nevertheless, sharp increase can be observed between 2003 and 2004 and between 2004 and 2005, whereby, the increase was 1,821 and 1,998 respectively. Comparatively, it can be observed that the increase in number of girls between 2004 and 2005 surpass the increase of male students on the same year. If this trend continues, gender parity in secondary education will be achieved by 2008. Figure 4.3 shows the number of students in upper secondary schools.
The transition rate, between O level to A level for girls in Tanzania
Performance
In secondary schools, girls enroll almost at par with boys. However, when looking at statistics of performance, gender disparities are revealed. Girls generally perform worst than boys in secondary schools. In the first cycle of secondary school, O level, the performance for both girls and boys is not impressive. Gender disparity is apparent. More students acquired division III and IV, worst for girls than boys. Generally, Seminary schools had high scores compare to government, community, and private schools. Nevertheless, percentage of boys who got Division I surpassed that of girls in all categories of schools, but particularly in Seminary schools, where 25.7% of boys got Division I compare to 5.4% of girls. For example, in 2004, about 5.4% of girls got Division I (highest Score), compare to 4.4% of girls in government schools, 0.6% in community schools and 4.2% in Private schools. In government schools, in 2004, more boys acquired Division I (13%) compare to girls (10.7%). However, more girls got division IV (51%) than boys (36.8%).
The same trend repeats in community, private and seminary schools. For instance, in community coeducational schools, 0.6% of girls compare to 2.2% of boys who got Division I. About 64.9% of girls acquired Division IV compare to 55.7% of boys. In Private school, in 2004, 4.7% of boys got Division I compare to 4.2% of girls, whereas 57.5% of girls got Division IV relative to 50.5% of boys (BEST: 2005). As regards the second cycle, A level in 2005, the trend was reversed in favour of girls in Single sex schools. More girls attained Division I (29.5%) and II (35.9%) compare to boys who got Division I (25%) and 26.7% who attained Division II. About 3.5% of girls got Division IV compare to 7.7% of boys.
Table 5 A-Level Examination Results 2005 (in %)
Grade | Boy Schools | Girl Schools |
I | 25.00 | 29.50 |
II | 26.75 | 35.98 |
III | 37.30 | 30.34 |
IV | 7.71 | 3.50 |
Fail | 3.24 | 0.68 |
Underlying Causes of Gender Inequalities in Secondary Education
HIV/AIDS: The number of students living with HIV/AIDS in secondary education is not known, as there are no follow up mechanisms on this issue. Similarly the number of deaths due to AIDS is not known. The Education Sector HIV/AIDS Strategic Plan 2003-2007 reported in 2003 that among sexual risky behaviors identified in secondary education included over drinking, smoking, multiple sex partners, lack of seriousness on sex issues, not using condoms. There are some factors, which limit responses to HIV/AIDS activities. These include students not ready to change behaviour; lack of enough knowledge on HIV/AIDS; lack of life skill training; entertain cultural practices, e.g., female genital mutilation, peer pressure; and tendency of older men to have sexual affairs with young girls believing that girls are free from HIV/AIDS.
Measures and Interventions on Gender Inequalities in Secondary Education
Girl’s Secondary Education Support (GSES)
At secondary level, girl’s participation is slightly lower than that of boys. So in order to cover this gap, several interventions are put in place. One of them is the piloting of a special girl’s project known as Girl’s Secondary Education Support (GSES), within which poor girls were supported to get Secondary Education. GSES is a sub-component of the Human Resource Development Pilot project of the Ministry of Education and Culture. The project is funded through a loan from the World Bank (BERE: 1997). Among major aims of GSES is to increase participation of girls from poor families in secondary education. Secondly, is to promote effective participation of girls in secondary schools. The objective is to ensure that girls who are academically bright but financially incapable go to secondary schools. GSES provides bursaries that cover part of the expenses that the family has to incur in sending their daughters to secondary school. Parents apply for the bursaries and the primary school teachers and committees recommend those girls who are academically bright but financially incapable. Depending on examination results, girls are selected to public or private schools. Each girl selected receive school fee; uniforms, pair of shoes; school bag; food allowance; exercise books, stationery, transport fare, pocket money; medical services and text books.
According to the study performed by BERE on Interim Review and Evaluation of The Girls ’ Secondary Education Support Progarm in 1999, it revealed that GSES girls do not perform significantly different from non-GSES girls. On the whole the hold their grounds compared to others. The number of GSES dropping out was small. Of the 368 girls who finished Form 1, only nine did not report to schools in 1997. Drop out rate was lower than for other girls in secondary schools.
Secondary Education Development Programme (SEDP: 2004-2009)
Secondary Education Development Programme was initiated by the Government of Tanzania through Ministry of Education and Culture. The programme aimed at increasing number of students who study and completing secondary education from 345’000 in 2003 to 2’000’000 in 2010; with higher academic performance. Among other important objective of SEDP is to improve gender equity in secondary education[5]
The Quota System
It is the concern for equity that leads to the introduction of the Quota System by sex, regions, and districts in 1972. This was the most affirmative action by the young state like Tanzania
Girls Education Scholarships
This initiative was deliberately introduced in 1997 by the Government to greatly subsidize the education of girls from poor families who can not afford to pay for their daughters’ secondary education. The main objectives of this program include: increase the number of girls with secondary education; improve the quality of secondary education; and educate and sensitize families and communities on the importance of girls’ education.
Support for the Poor and Vulnerable Children
Since the year 2000, the government mainstreamed the above experiment and introduced targeted financial support to poor families of both girls and boys, but especially girls to join secondary education. Each year, over 2.2 billion shillings is set aside and administered at district level. This has alleviated the burden on poor parents who would have had to make a preference between a boy and a girl to support in financing education; a choice which is normally biased against girls. This has raised both aspirations and expectations of girls to join secondary education[6].
Girls Hostels
Community Secondary Schools are normally day schools and girls have been experiencing great difficulties in walking long distances, harassment on the way, and staying in premises which expose them to unsolicited sexual advances and harassment. Consequently, most girls have been performed worst academically. The government has now decided to construct special hostels in community secondary schools which would give preference to girls.
Progress on Addressing Gender Disparities in Secondary Education
With the implementation of GSES, majority of girls were selected to attend government schools and the data shows that the proportion was increasing. In 1997, 58.50% of all girls were attending government schools compared to 53.57% in 1996 (BERE: 1997). The highest number of girls was in private boarding schools. In 1996, 40.38 and in 1997, 40.39% of all girls were attending private boarding schools. Among those in who were in government schools, majority were in day schools. Only 9.34% in 1996 and 13.37% in 1997 were attending government boarding schools.
In a recent evaluation of the Intervention in Girls’ Education Scholarship Program performed by Omari C.I in 2001, it was found that over 6’000 girls had benefited from the scholarships and that some beneficiaries were already pursuing university education. The realization of the other two objectives has not been assessed yet. However, the intervention restored hope where there was despair, with great positive multiplier effects. SEDP has contributed to the increased number of secondary schools from 1’291 in 2004 to 1’745 in May 2005, an increase of 454 schools, equal to 35.2%.
The proportion of students in Form I has increased from 147’490 in 2004 to 180’239 students in 2005, an increase of 42.3% (MOEC: 2005). As indicated in Figure 4, enrolment of female secondary students is almost at per with the number of male students, between 2004 and 2005. In 2005, number of male students enrolled in Form I was 91’680 relative to 88’559 of female students. Figure 4.4 shows the proportion of boys and girls in Form I. The Fourth Phase Government has certainly taken note of poor number of secondary schools. The Government has directed all regions to ensure that at least 50% of qualified primary leavers receive secondary education by March 2006. This is a positive move towards securing better access to secondary education for girls and boys[7]
Scaling Up Gender Equity Secondary Education
Various problems facing girls in school are rooted from the home set up. Girls who attend school as day scholars are faced with numerous domestic chores before and after the classes; depriving them of time to study and where the chores are excessive leading to fatigue and reduced concentration in class; which leads to poor performance. In cases where the school is located far from their home, girls have a lower chance of attending school. With all these obstacles, it is deemed as imperative to extend and improve boarding facilities for girls.
FAWE’s provision of boarding schools and facilities is a good practice to extend. FAWE plays a crucial advocacy role in the provision of adequate infrastructures, especially boarding facilities and laboratories to improve performance for girls. Schools have benefited from this advocacy role and acquired additional classrooms, dormitories, libraries, resource centers, and cafeteria and science laboratories according to their needs. These boarding schools have to be mostly established in the regions where girls’ academic performance is very low, regions such as Tabora and Dodoma
[Extracted from a report titled “Gender Disparities in Primary and Secondary Education: Study on Gender Equity in the Education Sector: Girls Education Initiatives.” April 2006. By Mr. Edward H. Mhina and Ms. Khalila A. Shariff. FAWE Tanzania and GAD Consult.]
[5] Budget Speech by Honourable Minister Joseph Mungai 2004/2005.
[6] Hakielimu Conducted An independent media survey by on the Special Government Fund to support orphaned and poor children to access secondary school, in October 2004 in 18 Districts of Tanzania.
[7] “More than classrooms” Statement on Expanding Secondary Education by Hakielimu, 13th February 2006
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