Involvement of Girls and Women in Informal and Non Traditional Employment

Women and Girls in SME and Informal Sector

Between 1990/1991 the informal sector constituted 35 percent of the total employment, a number that has undoubtedly increased in recent years due to high rural-urban migration and lack of opportunities in the formal sector. The Ministry of Labour indicated that in 1997, 30% of the labour force is un-or under employed. Some 60% of the unemployed are young, with unemployment being high among women. The National Informal Sector Survey conducted in Dar es Salaam in 1991, showed that Dar es Salaam had about 315,958 people who were engaged in the informal sector activities (of these, 190,971 were male and 124,587 were females). 13% of the women engage in male dominated trades.

Similarly, a 1995 survey of the informal sector in Dar es Salaam indicates that informal sector had increased by 2.4 percent in the period between 1991/1995 signifying that the informal sector employs almost 1.2 million people of whom 43% are women. It is estimated that there are between 730,000 to 1.2 million women entrepreneurs in the country. In 1991 women accounted for about 35 per cent of informal enterprises. By 1995, it was estimated that the proportion of women in the sector could have risen to 70 per cent of the informal sector labour force.  In a 2000 Economic and Social Research Foundation (ESRF) Study, 55 % of the enterprises in the sample were owned by women. 

Nonetheless Evans-Klock (2005) argues that woman entry into business in Tanzania is a recent phenomenon and prompted by the economic crises and restructuring programs which have reduced formal employment opportunities. Women are predominantly found in informal, micro level, and low-growth sectors, and encounters high competition while earning subsistence incomes. (Rutashobya 2000) Seriously encumbered by their low levels of education, women are unable to find employment in the formal, private sector and are the first to lose their jobs in retrenchment exercises. 

Table 1

Age Distribution of Women across Sectors

Age Groups in Years	Percentage Response from Various Sectors
	Sex	Informal Sector	Textile Manufacturing	Agriculture	Domestic	All Sectors
12-17	4.5	0	0	1.5	48.0	4.5
18-25	5.5	9.5	2.0	2.8	42.0	20.3
26-36	36.0	51,9	77.8	48.9	7.0	47.1
40 +	14.0	38.6	20.2	27.8	3.0	28.1
No of Respondents	200	598	99	44.3	100	1440

Source: Gender Promotion Program (2001)

The Informal Sector Survey of 1991 and the Dar es Salaam Informal Sector Survey of 1995 show that while both men and women were concentrated in labour intensive low capital investment areas, women were further pushed into low skills activities like local brewing and food vending while men engaged in carpentry, carvings, artistic activities masonry or fishing, all of which, require greater skill.  A similar study for the informal sector operators done by the University Consultancy Bureau (1997) confirmed the over-representation of women in the service sector. Lack of employment opportunities, low education attainment, lack of access and control of productive resources have rendered women powerless and helpless thus forcing them to enter into various forms of precarious employments including working in the informal sector. [1] Women choose to engage in MSEs because of push and pull factors as analyzed below: [2] 

Table 2

Push and Pull Factors

Push Factors

Pull Factors

q  To meet basic economic needs; either because she is single and has no formal employment or the spouse’s income is inadequate to meet basic family needs. q  To supplement income from the woman’s salary in order to meet her and her families basic needs. q  Creating a breathing space for the woman. Staying at home all day may invite quarrels with neighbours and family members.

q  To have something she can have control over. q  To raise her social status and earn the respect of her husband and the community. q  To have greater flexibility (compared to employment) to combine work and her household responsibilities. q  To be able to assess credit offered by some donor supported projects.  In these cases, the money borrowed is not used in the business but to meet other pressing needs.

Source:  Women Entrepreneurs in Tanzania: 

University of Dar es Salaam Entrepreneurship Centre (UDEC:2002)

Most Tanzanians are employed in smallholder agriculture.  Outside agriculture the informal sector is by far the most important employer:  A national survey in 1990/1991 showed that 2.4 million people were employed by this sector, of whom 40 percent in the urban areas. That is more than the jobs provided by the country’s formal sector i.e. Government, Parastatal and Private Enterprises. Most of the informal sector employment is self-employment 75% [3] 

Table 3

Informal Employment in Tanzania 1990

	Total	Male	Female
Dar es Salaam	315,558	190,971	124,587
Other Urban areas	634,145	354,526	279.619
Rural Areas	1,419,206	985,526	433,680
Total Country	2,368,906	1,531,023	837,886

Source:  ILO:  Training for work in the Informal Sector by Hans Christian Haan (2001)

  

In the context of an economic crisis and clear decrease in purchasing power, women are increasingly forced to take care of expenditures that are traditionally the responsibility of men and the extended family.  Technical trades are experiencing a rapid expansion due to the decreasing costs of locally produced goods and services as compared with imports. However, men almost exclusively occupy these trades. Few women work in masculine trades like cabinet making, masonry, auto mechanics, construction, carpentry, plumbing, electronics, and steelwork.

Although no formal or legal rules restrict women's access to male professions, women lack the professional qualifications necessary for these trades and have no means to access them. Likewise, market saturation and difficulties in market access have prevented the professional rehabilitation of marginalized women. Consequently, marginalized women are faced with more difficulties trying to regain their financial and social footing. The masculine trades that usually provide better economic opportunities and more prestigious social and professional recognition are essentially off-limits. In addition, in the midst of current economic challenges, women have no place to meet and exchange concerns or develop strategies in response to these issues.

Women’s Education and Employability.

Educational levels determine one’s life and status, level of awareness, knowledge and behavior. There is marked difference in educational attainment between the sexes, especially as age increases. The Tanzania HIV/AIDS Survey indicator 2003/2004 revealed that the educational attainment between male and females becomes greatly different as age increases.[4] Over-representation of women in low paid and unskilled jobs is partly the result of low education attainment. Twenty nine percent of females in Tanzania have never been to school, compared with 20% of males. Those with some primary education account for 35% of females and 41 percent of males.

Girls are under represented at all levels of education, especially technical (6%), university (16%) and advanced secondary school (31%)[5] (MOEC 2000). The informal sector has the highest number of women without formal education i.e. commercial agriculture (23%); textile and manufacturing (22%); and commercial sex work (13%). The survey found that the percentage of females attaining higher education is lower than that of males. For example, the percentage who completed primary school is 31% among females and 33% among males. Six percent of males have attended secondary school compared with 5% females. 

Education attainment is higher in urban areas than rural areas. For example, 16 % of urban men have some secondary education, compared with only three percent of rural men.  Among females, the difference is 13% in urban areas, and 2% in rural areas.  In both urban and rural areas the level of education for women is comparatively lower than that of men limiting their competitiveness into male dominated skills. Accordingly, the number of women who can enter into male dominated skills in both urban and rural areas is far lower in rural areas as compared to urban areas.  

The link between skills education and girls’ access to employment is significant and a critical barrier to girls employment. Traditional gender stereotypes in job opportunity are a reflection of subjects taken at school. Typical subjects taken by girls are nursing, teaching, secretarial duties which influence their future choice of   careers. In a study done by Isaac Mattemu Kithyo and Stephen Petrina (2003) in Kenya, it was found that there was a significant relationship between sex and the programs students choose. Female students chose traditionally female dominated programmes like food and beverage, and secretarial programmes while male students chose programmes that are traditionally considered male dominated trades e.g. building and engineering programs. Girls in male dominated trades study electricity, driving, carpentry and masonry.

A number of sources have observed that the apprenticeship training model is based on an implicit pedagogy that responds to the needs of men and boys, not of girls and women. A study by Nell and Shapirro (1999) on male and female dominated trades indicates that there are more male apprentices than female apprentices because male dominated trades take in more apprentices than female dominated trades with the exception of tailoring. The table shows that males have more access to employment than females both in private and public enterprises; and in informal businesses. Likewise, the number of unemployed is larger for women than men, while the number of men who set up businesses is greater than that of females by almost 50 percent. 

Table 4

Contribution of Business to Apprentice by Trade

 (a sample from Dar es Salaam): 

Note that in rural areas or other urban areas the situation may be slightly different.

	Shelter		Food		Payments		Nothing		Other
	No	%	No	%	No	%	No	%	No	%
Masons	1	3.8	15	57.7	15	57.7	1	3.8	7	26.9
Caterers	0	0.0	12	92.3	4	30.8	1	7.7	6	46.2
Tailors	1	3.7	14	51.9	4	14.8	11	40.7	6	22.2
Welders	1	2.9	24	68.6	11	31.4	6	17.1	11	31.4
Mechanics	0	0.0	24	64.9	10	27.0	5	13.5	8	21.6
Carpenters	0	0.0	21	63.6	11	33.3	5	15.2	8	24.2
Child Care	1	16.7	5	83.3	2	33.3	0	0.0	2	33.3
Hairdressers	0	0.0	11	64.7	3	17.6	0	0.0	2	11.8

Table adopted from: Nell and Shapiro, Traditional Apprenticeship Practice in Dar es Salaam: A Study (1999)

Research suggests that apprenticeship retention and completion rates for women remain persistently low compared to male counterparts. Being primary caregivers women face a number of financial and other constraints that push them out of the apprenticeship training before their completion. In contrast males drop out from apprenticeship training on account of unsteady or insufficient workload at the workshop. In some cases, it assumes that men’s and women’s education level is the same. The lack of prior-learning assessment and recognition create a barrier for women with strong competencies and aptitudes in trades[6].

There are however interesting developments with regards female dominated trades e.g. catering, childcare and tailoring. Increasingly these are owned or operated by men with women become their apprentices or their employees, thereby reinforcing women’s marginalization in these trades. The trends suggest that the practice of delineating female and male dominated skills perpetuates gender inequalities in both entrepreneurship and employment opportunities.

Nevertheless, there are a number of employment opportunities for girls in male dominated trades. Employment discrimination is rare if one is qualified[7]. Depending on the technical skills require some girls can be found working as masons, electricians or mechanics. Female dominated trades seem to create more chances for self employment because the machinery and equipments are affordable. Furthermore, there is a whole issue of cost studies indicate that a good number of apprentices become self employed after training. Relatively traditional apprentices have a higher success rate for set up their own businesses after training than trainees of formal vocational training. However this is more common for young men than women. There was disagreement between the students as to whether employers had gender preference when they hired employees. Some students believed that employers in industry prefer men to women when they hire employees.

Employment rates after training are highest among masons (48%), car mechanics (34%) and welders (32%). Unemployment is particularly high for hairdressers and child minders. Carpenters are more likely to find work in the informal sector.  As for those who set up their own businesses, masons are the most successful followed by car mechanics and welders. In these trades the success rate is 75% of apprentices[8]. While demand for child minders was rated quite highly in Dar es Salaam it constitutes the lowest percentage of apprentices followed by catering services[9].

VETA trainees have a harder time finding employment upon completing their training periods. Studies indicate that it is difficult for VET graduates to penetrate the formal labour market, because employers are suspicious of their qualification. A major problem is that trainees are trained in areas where there is no demand. Moreover most VET providers teach skills that emphasize employment rather than self employment. Marketing is not in built in the curriculum. Further, there is little follow up or job counseling to support graduates[10].  

Women and Girls in Male Dominated Trades

A student at INCOMET 2001 Vocational Training Centre Mafinga responding on why she has decided to join a male dominated course responded: “My father passed away when I was in standard five. He was educated with a nice job. My mother was just a housewife without an education or any skills. She was not able to afford secondary school cost for me after the death of my father.  I would not like children or I to suffer as we are suffering now”. This revelation shows that women need socio–economic empowerment to make them able to undertake a number of task and responsibilities at family and community levels. 

Male dominated activities include trade, politics and power, military, sciences and electronics. Until very recently it was difficult to find women in these fields. Poor quality of education and lack of practical application hinders girls from joining male dominated trades. Inadequate school facilities, gender biased school curriculum, teachers, syllabuses, textbooks and teaching methods promotes passiveness among girls and discourage them to enter into male dominated skills.

NGOs and public authorities have established programs to promote revenue-generating activities for disadvantaged women focus on occupations that have traditionally been seen as "women-appropriate" tasks. Aminata Dieye from Senegal is a typical example of a campaigner for women’s participation in male dominated skills. The approach adopted by Aminata aims at helping break down gender stereotypes, change community attitudes, and empower the female workforce throughout Senegal.

Box 1 Aminata has had strong convictions about human rights and gender equity all her life that stem from the influence of her father, a doctor who volunteered for the Red Cross for over 20 years. She pursued this interest through her university research on the dropout rate among young girls, her participation in numerous conferences and trainings, and her publications on gender and human rights both in Senegal and internationally. At RADDHO, a Senegalese human rights organization, Aminata directed the department dealing with the rights of women and children for six years and later moved on to direct the secretariat charged with the surveillance of human rights and emergency alerts. Aminata's initiative began following a pilot study conducted in 1998 by Mr. Cheik Niang, an anthropologist from Cheik Anta Diop University, in the region of Kolda in which she was involved as a woman’s rights expert. Through the study, Aminata recognized the feasibility of integrating women in masculine trades and began to develop her initiative.

Ms. Jaana Holvikivi, a computer expert working in Tanzania observes that, “Female experts, especially in technical fields, are still rare and that affects the way people react to me as a consultant or expert.[11] “There are, of course, many aspects which make it more difficult to be a woman in male-dominated aid projects. As a Finnish woman I am used to relatively equal relationships with male colleagues. But the men in the development projects are Irish, British, Dutch, and Hungarian and so on, and often I have to work hard to prove that I could be accepted as an equal partner… My competence was not doubted. They just did not want a female professional among them…. When women have valued skills, they feel more confident and become more demanding.”[12]

A study by Alex Odongo in Uganda (2006) followed the lives of three Ugandan girls namely, Proscovia Aciro, Irene Aceng, Stella Lamunu and Mugisha Beatrice Owor abducted by the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) and turned into fighters and rescued by the Uganda Peoples Defense Forces a few years ago[13].  Aciro, Aceng and Lamunu are undergoing rehabilitative vocational training in welding and metal fabrication works at Gulu Youth Development Association (GYDA) Skills Training and Demonstration Centre, while Mugisha completed her training in March. They chose to train in welding and metal fabrication works; a hitherto male-dominated field, because they wanted to become job makers rather than job seekers. "Our sponsors wanted us to do tailoring because that is what other women prefer but we refused," says Aciro.

Aceng is the former wife of the late LRA Brig. Otiting who was killed by the UPDF in 1998, while Aciro is the widow of the late Brig. Odong Matata, a former LRA rebel. She notes, “Skills in metal work and carpentry are more marketable than tailoring. We are looking forward to a bright future: With peace returning to the north, and with these resettlement and recovery programmes, there will be a big market for welding and metal works because people will be building and reconstructing".

Socio cultural barriers to girl’s participation in Skills Training 

In the course of the research an administrator helplessly threw up his hands and exclaimed: "The low enrollments of females in technology courses can be attributed to the attitudes in the society." Culture acts as a major barrier to girl’s entering male dominated trades. Studies show that girls are more attracted to female dominated trades than to male dominated trades mostly on account of cultural beliefs. For example, in Ghana, gender roles and practices are socially prescribed and strictly enforced. Thus, girls grow up wanting to continue with those roles[14]. They are further pressured to continue these roles because of perpetuated beliefs that girls should not break this tradition, as they say in Ghana, ‘obaa ton nyaadoa na oton atuduro’ which means that females should stick to their roles. Also, girls worry that if they chose male dominated trades customers will not purchase their products. Ghanaians believed that only ugly, old fashioned and masculine-featured illiterate females would enter male trades while educated girls would opt for female dominated trades.  

Generally, girls’ participation in male dominated trade is frowned upon. Many studies have found that girls have fears about entering into such trades mainly because of what befalls girls who decide to take these trades. Social perceptions also play a critical role in hindering girls from pursuing these trades. Parents emphasize girls productive and reproductive roles rather than their education.  The lack of support from family- spouses or parents- diminishes a woman’s prospect to access or complete apprenticeships. Many parents still view apprenticeship in non-traditional trades for women as defying social acceptability even in developed countries. Part of the problem lies in the way children are socialized. In most cases their role models tend to be their parents. Even in formal education, women/girls tend to avoid professions that are regarded as more ‘masculine’. Similarly, boys experience the same thing, thus reinforcing resistance at the workplace for jobs that tend to be ‘feminine’[15].

Structural Barriers to girls’ participation in Skills Training

A study carried out in three locations in West Africa found that the numbers of girls/women in male dominated trades was alarmingly small. Geographical differences are significant and may suggest access to facilities or cultural belief. For instance, there are more girls involved in male dominated trades in Accra and Koforidua than in Cape Coast.  In terms of trades, there are more girls in carpentry than in any other trade, followed by electronics and welding. Masonry and mechanics have the least number of girls.  Girls taking carpentry mostly focused on making furniture because they liked art and design.

  

As already noted the duration of MDTs is longer than it takes to complete female dominated trades. In some areas this may be a hindrance to girls’ training. Girls enrolled in training claim that their parents want them to pursue female dominated trades. Thus there is no motivation to break into male dominated trades. Few teachers and masters motivate girls to enter into male dominated trades. This can include judging their abilities based on stereotypes; unequal pay for similar jobs performed by male co-workers; discrimination in the hiring process; and isolating women in the workplace and training sites. Gendered perceptions can result in the ‘de-selection’ of women from these occupations. In one study 45% of respondents preferred girls in male dominated trades not to take carpentry, masonry and welding for fear that it may destroy the girl’s physical beauty.

It is clear from the research that some of the obstacles are systemic. Most parents cannot afford expensive courses and thus the tendency to choose the cheapest courses, which are in most cases, not male dominated trades. Likewise informal sector trainers believe that girls are lazy and that they can only study ‘soft’ male dominated trades because they do not require physical strength. Interestingly, some believe only dumb girls take female dominated trades[16] a finding that correlates with a Canadian study that established that the ‘image’ of the trade had a lot to do with decision parents and their female children made regarding male dominated trades. Some of the views expressed are:

·         That trades are seasonal 

·         Occupations involve hardship and hard labour 

·         These trades are for the less academically inclined and not challenging

·         Trades are dirty and dangerous 

·         The degree of intelligence needed to perform them is basically low

·         Considered second class careers or ‘dead ends’ thus poor career potential, poor mobility etc

·         Great fear of job insecurity because apprentices are often the first to be laid off when business conditions are slow

With respect to the working relationship between boys and girls; or girls and their teachers some girls report being sexually harassed by male counterparts and masters. Studies also, cite a lack of respect and verbal abuse being common in MDTs.

Table 5

Number of Girls Involved in Male Dominated Trades

Trade	Accra		Cape Coast		Koforidua		Total
	#	%	#	%	#	%	#	%
Carpentry/Joinery	8	27	5	50	6	38	19	34
Masonry	1	3	-	-	-	-	1	2
Plumbing	1	3	-	-	1	6	2	4
Electrical/electronics	4	13	2	20	2	13	8	14
Auto Body Works	1	3	2	20	1	6	4	7
Auto Mechanics	-	-	-	-	1	6	1	2
Welding	6	20	-	-	2	23	8	14
Upholstery	2	6	-	-	1	6	2	4

Table adapted from: ILO/IPEC vocational Skills Project: Work-Based, Family and consumer Research in Accra, Cape Coast and Koforidua, Baseline Survey, ILO, 2005

Another reason that limits girls’ access to skills training is the attitude of the master. It is well established that the skills associated with women tend to be undervalued, and defined as non-skills, even when they entail complex actions and thought processes, such as child care, subsistence farming, agro-processing and the like. Most masters are not congenial a fact that repels girls. 200 street girls were interviewed on which trade they would prefer to enter if they had a choice. Their answers provide an indication of the girls’ perceptions about male dominated trades:

Table 6

Trade/Skill Training Preference of Female Street Children

Preferred Trade/Skill	Number of Female Street Children	Percentages
Male dominated Trades	32	16
Female dominated Trades	154	77
Indifferent	14	7
Total	200	100

Table adapted from: ILO/IPEC vocational Skills Project: Work-Based, Family and consumer Research in Accra, Cape Coast and Koforidua, Baseline Survey, ILO, 2005

Additional factors limiting women’s access to male dominated trades include; late exposure, mechanical and technical work; non involvement in the family business; little encouragement from informal mentors; lack of information about where to apply for apprenticeships; and lack of foundational skills and aptitudes normally acquired by men through father to son relationships. Another problem is inadequate promotion and career information targeting women[17]. There is concern that women are not receiving the right information about trades and apprenticeships. Fundamental to increasing the number of women in MDT is changing attitudes and behaviour of stakeholders (Armstrong 1995).The situation is extremely bad to the extent that studies show that despite some success stories, most initiatives aimed at increasing the participation of women in apprenticeship and trades have not succeeded in raising their numbers in apprenticeship programmes. 

[Extracted from a consultancy report titled “Development of Strategies to Provide Girls with Opportunities to Train in Employable Skills: Male Dominated Trades.” GAD Consult and ILO, May 2007. Researched by Mr. Edward H. Mhina [Team Leader], Mrs. Kokuteta Baregu-Mutembei, Mrs. Khalila A Shariff, and Mr. Amanyile Z Mahali.]

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[1] Ibid.

[2] Women Entrepreneurs in Tanzania:  University of Dar es Salaam Entrepreneurship Centre (UDEC) (2002) (p.9)

[3] ILO:  Training for work in the Informal Sector by Hans Christian Haan (2001)

[4] Tanzania HIV/|AIDS Survey Indicator 2003/2004 (p.10)

[5] MOEC 2000

[6] Accessing and Completing Apprenticeship Training in Canada, Perception of Barriers, Consultation Report, Canadian Apprenticeship Forum, Jan 2004                                                                                                                                                                      

[7] This is the view maintained by District Officials of Temeke Municipality during field work ILO-IPEC 2006.

[8] Traditional Apprenticeship Practice in Dar es Salaam: A study Prepared for VETA and GTZ Tanzania by Nell and Shapiro, Sept 1999, pg.58

[9] Opcit. 

[10] Education and Training for the Informal Sector, Simon McGrath et al, Education Research Paper No. 11, 1994

[11] Working with microcomputer users in developing countries [Cases from Tanzania, Micronesia and the Maldives ] Jaana Holvikivi

[12] Ibid.

[13]Uganda: Tough Women who Venture into Metal Work, New Vision July 3, 2006. Posted on the web on July 5, 2006. Alex Odongo. Kampala.

[14] ILO/IPEC vocational Skills Project: Work-Based, Family and consumer Research in Accra, Cape Coast and Koforidua, Baseline Survey, ILO, 2005

[15] Accessing and Completing Apprenticeship Training in Canada, Perception of Barriers, Consultation Report, Canadian Apprenticeship Forum, Jan. 2004

[16]ILO/IPEC vocational Skills Project: Work-Based, Family and consumer Research in Accra, Cape Coast and Koforidua, Baseline Survey, ILO, 2005

[17] Opcit. 

Women's Economic Empowerment in Tanzania

Tanzania’s Women in Development Policy was developed in 1992 and replaced in February 2000 by a Women’s Development and Gender Policy, with increased focus on gender. In February 2000, the National Subprogram for Women’s and Gender Advancement, which is the national strategy to implement the Beijing Platform of Action, was approved. This strategy addresses 4 out of the 12 critical areas of concern identified in the Beijing Platform for Action [enhancement of women’s legal capacity, economic empowerment of women and poverty eradication, enhancement of women’s political empowerment and decision-making, and women’s access to education, training and employment]. In September 2005, Tanzania’s Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children [MCDG&C], produced a “National Strategy for Gender Development”. This document is an obvious step towards “laying foundation in promoting gender equality and equity in the country”[1]. The MCDG&C has initiated gender mainstreaming working groups in selected sectors (macro policy, health, agriculture and education).

Pertaining to mainstreaming gender in economic development in Tanzania, various activities are currently engaged by government agencies and institutions such as:  Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Planning, Economy and Empowerment, Ministry of Education & Culture, Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperatives, Ministry of Science, Technology & Higher Education, and the Ministry of Health; the civil society [Tanzania Gender Networking Programme and the FemAct Coalition], and donor agencies [the Netherlands Embassy and the Embassy of Sweden], in mainstreaming gender within the budgeting process in Tanzania.

National Framework for Facilitating Women’s Empowerment

Both the National Employment Services Act [1999], and the Employment and Labour Relations Act [2003], provide for promotion of equal opportunities to women and men. While the former focuses on access to employment services, the latter dwells on prohibition of discriminatory practices at work places. The Employment and Labour Relations Act also provides protection to pregnant female employees, through social security.  More than 30% of job seekers who have visit the Public Labour Exchange Centres since their establishment in 2002, are women. 

In addition a specific window for informing and advising women on job availability and other opportunities has been established within the National Gender Machinery[2]. But the main challenge remains that of transforming the mindsets, especially those of “private sector employers [who] do not often abide by all the standards that promote equality at places of work”[3]. In most cases, wages in the export sector are usually higher than in other sectors such as agriculture. Women, as well as men, in such sectors, gain from expansion in exports through increased average wages. Economic empowerment of women and eradication of poverty is one of 4 areas of focus by the government of Tanzania as regards the Beijing Platform for Action. Not only have guidelines for gender equity in accessing financial services been issued through the National Micro-Finance Policy, but the policy similarly provides ample flexibility in micro-finance institutions in making services accessible to both women and men on terms and conditions they can afford.

Empowerment of women through small and medium enterprises is effected through increasing their access to financial services such as credit, training in entrepreneurship, training in business management, and access to markets[4]. Moreover, efforts are being engaged by the government of Tanzania to enable women gain standard certification of their products and increased access to both local and foreign markets. For instance, the National Micro-Finance Policy, like most recent policies, presents opportunities and provisions for gender equity, states on its paragraph 3.2.5, “access to financial services should be available to both men and women.” Moreover, it also urges that it might be “necessary to make special efforts to incorporate features that make the services accessible to all”[5].

Women’s Access and Control Over Credit and Financial Services

Access to financial services for SMEs has improved negligibly even though the number of financial institutions such as banks and financial intermediaries has increased to over 30. Women in Tanzania access less than a tenth or 8% of obtainable financial resources from banks. Besides stringent conditions and terms, most women shy away from such institutions due to costs involved. However, women constitute the majority of borrowers from micro-credit institutions. Microfinance experiences show that women have higher repayment rates compared to men.  However, women face a range of constraints in utilising banking resources. The actual extent of access to credit by women is revealed through a study recently undertaken by IFC [“Tanzania Gender and Economic Growth Assessment”]. As part of efforts to sustain and expand access financial services to women, plans are underway to establishing a women’s bank[6].

Women Entrepreneurship Development (WED) is an example of a semi autonomous micro credit organisation operating within the Small Industry Development Organisation, a unit of the Ministry of Industry, Trade and Marketing. WED is a national programme for capacity building SMEs in food processing. Danida has supported the provision of matching grants to this public sector institution because it trains private sector individuals, and some of them become business development service providers in the private sector as a result of the training.

Some studies show that taxation is having a disproportionally more negative impact to women than men. It has been argued that since women have lower earnings, the 20% VAT imposed on most basic commodities implies that women income earners pay a larger proportion of their earnings as indirect tax. There is obviously a need for gender differentiated tax incidence analysis in regards to how various indirect or other taxes impact women compared to men[7].

Women Empowerment through policies and programmes in MSME Development

Among policy commitments announced by the Tanzanian government in the “Guidelines for the Preparation of Medium Term Plan and Budget Framework for 2005/06 to 2007/08”, is “increasing access to finance through improvement of financial services to SMEs”, and “enhancing the business environment by simplifying and modernising legislation on land registration and commercial laws”. In addition, the government has also committed itself towards “removing business impediments in the country through implementation of BEST programme”. Another measure is the reduction of “critical problems affecting the SMEs through initiatives, such as Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise [MSMEs] Project”.

The “Small and Medium Enterprise Development Policy” mentions lack of information, affordability of services, costs, size, absence of working premises, limited access to business training, marketing, technology, and limited access to financial services as among the main constraints facing SMEs[8]. It is therefore within this context that this profile suggests the following measures:  Government policy statement on gender and disadvantaged groups suggests the enhancement of gender mainstreaming in all initiatives related to development of SMEs. Strategies proposed by the policy, which are this profile sees should be applied, include: “Facilitating SME service providers to design special programmes for women and disadvantaged groups”.

The “Private Sector Development Strategy for Tanzania” is another document which provides ample suggestions for improving similar strategies in order to come to grips with improving access to markets for women and men. The strategies are inclusive of: Promoting economic empowerment of women in business. Among strategies suggested to this effect are: “addressing the legal, administrative and regulatory barriers that are preventing women from contributing fully to the economy”[9];“Eliminating gender based inequalities in education and access to agricultural inputs with a view to increasing the contribution of women to growth”[10];  and, “addressing the barriers specifically facing women owned enterprises”[11].

[Extracted from a Paper titled  “Women’s Control over Economic Resources and Access to Financial Resources: A Case on Strengthening the Business Environment in Tanzania.”  By Edward H. Mhina [1] Chief Consultant GAD Consult. [Gender & Development Consultants]

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[1]       

     Mr. Edward H. Mhina, the Chief Consultant at GAD Consult, (with University qualifications in Public Administration & International Relations from University of Uppsala in Sweden, and Gender Planning Methodology from the University of London) is also a full member of Tanzania Gender Networking Programme - TGNP. He is a member of TGNP, and has been a TGNP Board Member and Information Generation and Dissemination Committee Chairperson for the past 4 years. Mr. Mhina has so far undertaken more than 210 consultancies for various clients, both public and private agencies within and without Tanzania, since May 1994.

      The consultant once worked as a researcher for TGNP in studying resource allocation from a gender perspective in the Ministry of Education & Culture, as well as the Ministry of Higher Education, Science & Technology. The exercise produced several reports and papers. TGNP has through such work produced a book titled “Gender Analysis on Budgets in Tanzania”. Additional exposure to gender budgeting activities was gained in relation to the UNIFEM’s regional office’s bi-annual meetings in Harare, Zimbabwe (which was a platform for sharing on progress within gender budgeting in the region). Mr. Mhina was engaged as a researcher to share in new findings and observations within GBI in Tanzania.

      Moreover, Mr. Mhina was also involved in gender budgeting exercises in the following areas within and without Tanzania: Presentation of research paper titled “Tanzanian Experiences on NGO and Government Research Partnership in Gender Budgeting” (April 2000), at the Commonwealth Secretariat in London UK (May 2000). In April 2003, the consultant prepared and executed an in-country workshop on “Gender Budget Analysis for Poverty Reduction”, for more than 70 participants from the Ministry of Finance, Planning & Economic Development in Uganda.

      In the last 3 years, Mr. Mhina has written several papers on engendering financial reforms and the accountant general offices, for the Association of East and Southern African Accountant Generals – ESAAG. He is currently contracted by ESAAG to document good practices in engendering the Accountant General Offices in ESAAG member countries, as well as research into good practices in regards to gender budgeting in a few selected ESAAG member countries [Zambia, Swaziland, Lesotho, Uganda and Tanzania]. 

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[1]     URT:2005.2, page v

[2]     Beijing +10 Country Report, pg 17

[3]     Beijing +10 Country Report, pg 18

[4]     MCDG&C, pg. 9

[5]     National Micro-Finance Policy. May 2000. Government of  Tanzania. Page 13.

[6]     TGGA, pg.43

[7]     TGGA, pg 48

[8]     SME Development Policy. Pg 9

[9]     Strategic Intervention. 2.1 on page 45

[10]    Strategic Intervention. 2.2 on page 45

[11]    Strategic Intervention. 2.3 on page 45

Food Security and Gender in Tanzania: A Case Study of Kisiwani Village in Same District

Kisiwani village is situated within Same. The village borders the famous Nkomazi Game Reserve and this has been a very contentious experience between the villagers and the game keepers. The village’s estimated total land area is 4138 Ha. 59% of the area is used for grazing and this is why the villagers are always in confrontation with the game reserve authorities. The villagers have accused the authorities of land grabbing while the authorities are accusing the villagers of trespassing and intrusion into the game reserve. 1147 Ha are under cultivation while 6% of the total area is used for residential purposes

The village Government has a total of 15 leaders. 47% are women. 13 of them are elected and two are appointed. There are five committee leaders, 2 male and 3 female. Women representation in the village’s government is comparatively balanced. The village’s opportunities include fertile land, livestock, water, brick making, electricity, schools and roads. The obstacles facing these essential resources in the village are as follows: Inadequate land area for cultivation and grazing; bad water supply infrastructure and shortage of water during dry season; The brick making industry is threatening the surrounding forests and the game reserve nearby; Electricity gridline is passing above the village but very few people have enjoyed the luxury of that energy; Shortage of teachers, desks and teaching materials; most roads are in bad shape.

Age of interviewees

65% of women interviewees were between age 30 and 49. This is slightly higher than the male interviewees aged between 30 and 49 years. In this case, 57% of male interviewees fell under that age category. 13% of all interviewees were aged between 50 and 59 years. 15% were between 20 and 29 years. Only 9% of all interviewees were aged over 60 years.

Marital Status of Interviewees:

87% of male interviewees and 65% of female interviewees were married. This constituted 76% of all interviewees. 9% of all interviewees were involved in polygamous marriages. 4% of female interviewees were widows and 9% were divorced

 Household Population:

63% of all interviewees had between 4 to 7 members of the family in a household. 39% of female interviewees and 35% of male interviewees had between 4 and 5 members of the family in a household unit.  26% of male interviewees and 26% of female interviewees respectively had between 6 to 7 members. 22% of female interviewees had less than three members as compared to 13% of male interviewees. 13% of male interviewees had more than ten members of the family living under one roof compared to 1% female interviewees who said so. 9% of male and 9% of female interviewees had between 8 and  9 members of the family in a household.

Main Activities Performed by Interviewees:

54% and 91% of all interviewees were livestock keepers and farmers respectively. 1% worked as employees, 1% in hand crafts, 2% as casual workers and 7% as small business operators. While women and women were equally comparable in farming activities (91%), more women seemed to be working as livestock herders (61%) than their male counterparts (48%). Where men and women invested equal energy resources as casual workers (4%), more women were active in small business operations (9%)

Access to resources

On their part, male interviewees said they had full access to farmlands (100%); a housing plot (100%); environmental awareness education (100%); agricultural officers and livestock officers (100%). Informal credit schemes and fuel wood were the only resources that men interviewees said they had little access to. Only over a third of male interviewees said so. 48% of the female interviewees had access to these resources. There was little access to agricultural officers (33%), livestock officers (33%); extension officers (33%); low cost eco-friendly technology (33%); formal lending facilities (33%); and charcoal (33%). As for housing plot and farmland, none of the female interviewee said they had any access to

Ownership of Resources

 85% of all interviewees said men owned most resources than women (57%). Only 37% of female interviewees said women owned these resources as compared to 77% of male interviewees who said men had overall ownership of the resources. Women could not own farmlands, housing plots, benefits of formal lending facilities, or even livestock. Other resources such as home gardens, charcoal, livestock, and low cost eco-friendly technologies could only be afforded by a third of women in the village.

Access to Essential Commodities

Only a third of female interviewees said women had access to inorganic fertilizers. They also had weak access to seeds (33%); charcoal (33%); cattle dips (33%); building poles (33%); animal fodder 33%); and plant pesticides (33%). None of the female interviewees said women had access to commercial wood. Fuel wood, roofing grass, and ugali were the main commodities in full access. 100% of female interviewees said so. Two thirds of female interviewees had fair access to organic fertilizers, fish, milk, and modern stoves

Access to Sources of Energy

Collected fuel wood was the most common source of energy in the village. 96% of all interviewees depended heavily on this source of energy. The second most common source of energy was the kerosene with 70% of all interviewees having been using it. Third was charcoal (17%), and commercial fuel wood (13%). None in the village had any access to electricity. All women interviewees (100%) were using collected fuel wood. 74% of them had access to kerosene; 22% had access to charcoal, and 9% having access to commercial fuel wood.

Ownership of Farming Tools:

An average 92% of all interviewees had basic farming tools such as hand hoes, machetes, and axes. Men appeared to have full access to these tools than women (Table 3.5). But women also had less access to mechanized tools than men did. Only 9% of women interviewees had access to ploughs as compared to 17% of men who did have such access. 96% of women interviewees had hand hoes; 87% had machetes; 83% had axes, and 4% were borrowing these tools.

Mode of Carrying and Transportation:

78% of all interviewees in Kisiwani travel on foot. They are used to walking and carrying their items on top of their heads. 41% have access to bicycles and 17% depend on motor transportation (bus and trucks) for traveling very long distances. 13% use mainly cattle ridden carts and only 2% have access to trolleys. 74% of women interviewees travel on foot and carry items with their heads. 48% have access to bicycles; 22% depend on unreliable rural bus transportation or trucks. Only 9% of women have access to wheel carts.

Access to Formal Education:

67% of all interviewees in Kisiwani Village completed basic education. 9% reached secondary education and 13% reached junior primary education (STD 4). 4% went to training institutes or schools and 2% had no formal education at all.

More male interviewees (17%) reached STD 4 than women (9%). But 70% of women interviewees completed basic education (STD 7) compared to 65% of male interviewees who mentioned so. Where 17% of women interviewees reached secondary education, none in the male interviewee community had reached that level. 4% of female interviewees and 4% of male interviewees went to training or adult education institutes. Where 4% of male interviewees had no formal education, 9% of them had been involved in other miscellaneous entrepreneurial education.

Access to Clean Water Services

67% of interviewed residents had access to running water whose sources were located near the households (54%). Only 7% of total interviewees said that they had water supply running within their households. But 43% of the total interviewees also said that that water was still far away form their households. Women were saying water still far away from the households (52%) while 65% of male interviewees said water now available near the homes. 61% of male interviewees had access to running water compared to 74% of women who said so. 9% of women had water within the household while 4% of men mentioned so.

Access to Health Services:

98% of all interviewees frequented dispensaries for health services. 41% used herbal medicines. 9% said medical expenses were extremely costly with 7% saying health services were very poor.

 Access to Extension Services

Veterinary services such as inoculation, cattle dipping and bathing were the most accessible forms of extension services in the village with 63% of all interviewees saying so. Health services were second with 57% of all interviewees mentioning that. Third was agricultural services with 46% of all interviewees. Others were forestry services (28%) and the least mentioned was social development services (24%).

Access to Lending Facilities:

The village has not been exposed to any lending services from banks, credit unions, cooperatives, or NGOs. In fact 43% of all interviewees said they depended upon friends for credit services. 28% of all interviewees also depended upon their relatives for loans. Only 2% of the interviewee community could reach NGOs for credit services; 7% of them relied not on cash, but rather on commodities and goods. Upatu was practiced by not more 4% of all interviewees.

Access to Personal Means of Production

72% of all interviewees depended primarily on their food crops for survival. 41% mentioned chicken rearing. Fruits were the other alternative way of sustainability (35%). Other were milking the cow (28%); commercial crops (20%); flowers (7%); and hair making (4%). Women interviewees named food crops (70%); chicken rearing (39%); fruits (30%); milk (26%); and hair making as the basic means of survival.

Gender Variances in Access to Essential Goods and Services:

100% of female interviewees said that men had the overall authority in the household and that all decision making process lay in men’s control. 33% said mothers do not have any right of objection in the household. 33% of female interviewees said that a woman has been designed to serve within the household

Main Difficulties Facing Villagers:

Findings from the village’s household survey indicate that 96% of the interviewees saw crop pests as the major obstacle towards food security. 87% of the village population mentioned wild animals such as baboons, lions, and elephants as another major difficulty in protection of crops and livestock. 87% of all interviewees mentioned low income as one of the major difficulties in their lives. Others were farmlands (65%); grazing areas (61%); access to markets (61%); unstable prices (61%); lack of farming tools (57%); health (50%); water (46%); environmental degradation (43%); and administration (39%)

Main Agricultural Problems in the Village

Drought was the main problem for 75% of the total interviewees. While 50% of male interviewees said so, all women interviewees acknowledged that drought was the principal problem in the village. Land was the second most contentious issue for farmers and livestock grazers in the village. 71% of all interviewees mentioned it. Lack of irrigation channels (25% of male interviewee), inadequate knowledge on modern sustainable agricultural practices (33% of female interviewees; livestock disease (13% of male interviewees) and lack of viable seeds (13%) were other main problems.

Agricultural problems that are currently being addressed

Female interviewees mentioned Rehabilitation and construction of new irrigation infrastructure in the village (100%); Rehabilitation of drinking dams and dips (33%); Better health services are being improved (33%); and that Plant pesticides are being distributed (33%).

Strategies used in addressing the agricultural problems:

The male interviewees mentioned the following strategies. Collective villagers’ work (nguvu kazi) on rehabilitation of livestock and farming facilities (25%); others were Collective rehabilitation and improvement of irrigation physical systems (13%); Proper storage of grain (13%); Distribution of plant pesticides (13%); Decreasing the number of livestock population to ease the pressure on limited grazing lands. (13%)

Main weaknesses in the used strategies:

Female interviewees mentioned poor implementation of local food security policies (33%). Others were lack of permanent irrigation tanks (33%); lack of viable crop seeds (33%); Poor farming tools (33%); Persistent drought (33%); and lack of modern cattle dips and baths (33%).

Daily Women’s Routines

These were waking up early in the morning; milking the cows; giving children bath and prepare breakfast for them and father; depart with father and join him in the fields; return home in the afternoon; cook lunch; collect water; attend the children; prepare dinner; and go to bed early

Historical Timeline

This includes drought and diseases in the seventies and in the eighties; Kagera war; deterioration of veterinary services and facilities; and food aid. In the 1990s, El nino exacerbated the spate of drought and related problems.

Seasonal calendar of the village

Farm preparation in the beginning of the year before monsoon rains. Planting of maize and rice; vegetables and pulses; tilling and protection of farms between march and may. Corn harvest in July. Pests attack during planting period and this is a time when other livetstock diseases set in.

Possible Measures Needed to Improve Food Situation in the Village:

Male interviewees mentioned rehabilitation, maintenance, and construction of irrigation canals and tanks as the major step that should be taken (75%); Others wanted pesticides and vaccines (38%);  maintenance of cattle dams and dips (25%);  viable and drought resistant crop seeds (13%); training of local farmers and pastoralists; and review of land regulations (13%). Female interviewees wanted irrigation canals and tanks (33%); some wanted to fully adopt the drought resistant farming methods (33%); another 33% said they wanted more land to be given back to them from the park authorities. Villagers should not sell their crops; instead they should preserve it. This was mentioned by 33% of the female interviewees.

[This PRA study on Gender and Food Security Profile for Kisiwani Village was designed and executed with full cooperation between, VECO, GAD Consult, local district researchers and volunteers, and members of the village community. This study is intended to act as a facilitator for enabling various stakeholders in increasing awareness and knowledge on the dynamics of food security and feminization of agriculture. This profile therefore presents immediate findings on the context in Kisiwani Village as regards food security, demography, gender and poverty related issues in development]

  

- Extracted from a Report titled "Food Security and Gender in Tanzania: A case Study of Kisiwani Village in Same District." GAD Consult and VECO, April 2004. By Mr. Edward H. Mhina. Chief Consultant, GAD Consult - Gender and Development Consultants. P.O. Box 4361, Dar es Salaam. Physical Address: 82, Ally Khan Road, Upanga East. Mobile 0754-340 488. Email: gadconsult@msn.com