On the whole, gender mainstreaming in Ireland Aid supported programmes and institutions requires additional attention. For instance, at the programme level, gender mainstreaming is not easily evident in neither of the following components of the project cycle: pre-design phase documentation; in the programme design; in the targeting of beneficiaries; in the objectives; in indicators; in use of gender specialists; in promotion of gender specific activities; in linkages of the programme to Gender and Development or Tanzania’s commitments; and in the empowerment of women. In other words, most of the programme level documentation is not consistent nor specific in addressing gender mainstreaming.
Gender mainstreaming in the Education sector activities
There exists a several gender diagnoses on the education sector, but it is uncertain whether these were adequately or exhaustively utilized in the design stages of the Education sector SWAp. This can partly be observed by the immediate gaps illustrated below. The Education and Training Policy of 1995 (ETP), has a specific chapter that addresses access and equity issues within education. The policy defines “access” to education as the opportunities available to the intended population (or more appropriately, young boys and girls), to partake in education. The policy thereafter defines “equity”, as the fairness availed in the allocation and distribution of education resources to the various members of communities in the country. The policy’s chapter on access and equity, which sets the platform for addressing gender imbalances within basic education, further elucidates the government’s resolve for guaranteeing access to pre-primary, primary education, and adult literacy, to all citizens as a basic right[1].
Moreover, the policy provides a brief analysis on constraints that affect the participation of women in the education sector (e.g., cultural preferences for educating male children, high drop-out rates due to early marriages and pregnancies and relatively low performance levels by girls in class and during final examinations when compared to boys), as well as provide measures for addressing these gender imbalances. In general, some of the measures have been accomplished to varying degrees, but as far as the sector is concerned, inappropriate designs of interventions and weak sectoral priorities have endowed Tanzanian children, girls in particular, with a low probability of attending secondary school, especially in upper secondary. The focus on girls’ education might be misinterpreted as a “WID” approach, but it is a necessary, short or medium term, gender balancing strategy to overcome unbridled male dominance in most areas.
The Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP).
This programme is designed to assist the government in the achievement of the long term human development and poverty eradication targets. The main objective of the ESDP related to basic education is “to provide for increased and equitable access to higher quality primary, secondary and adult education through improved education, institutional capacity and competence building, so as to obtain higher levels of economic and social development.” The main priority strategies towards this endeavour include: increasing spending on basic education; improving opportunities for secondary school education; promoting more demand driven and market oriented post-secondary and higher education; and, improving sector management and capacity to monitor progress through institutional development. As regards priority strategies on addressing gender imbalances, none exist other than gender neutral statements and actions on gross and net enrolment, retention, transition ratios, and school leaving performances.
In all, strengths in gender mainstreaming in the education sector SWAp programme are visible in terms of use of gender specialists, whereby at present a Gender Technical Adviser is engaged in the ESDP process since April 2001; also a handful of projects and programmes in the sector (e.g., DBSPE, CSDP, COBET, etc) used them. Nevertheless, the impact of these specialists is limited by various factors. Other areas of marginal strengths are in gender awareness raising (seminars and workshops), gender analysis, gender focused identification of beneficiaries (e.g., girls and female teachers); gender sensitive design of project activities (e.g., FEMSA and FAWE activities) and gendered objectives (e.g., in the Education and Training Policy). There are signs of gender insensitivity as regards the formal content, outputs, activities, linkages, and general design. However, the most common weakness is lack of gendered outputs even where gendered objectives exist (e.g., in the ESDP and especially so in PEDP). The support towards education comprised of 11% of the Ireland Aid CSP frame.
However, a report by Cathy Gaynor, titled “Irish Aid Policy on Operational Footing”, showed how gender should be mainstreamed in the various activities supported by IA as regards the education sector. The report acknowledged the need for paying attention to the girl child and women in education processes and systems as a way of mainstreaming gender in its programmes and projects. This report outlined the following key gender aware actions as imperative:
- Identifying the constraints which limit girls and women’s participation in education and training at all levels.
- Provision of incentives as a strategy to promote access by girls and women to education and training opportunities, including non-traditional areas.
- Introduction of support systems that will lead to retention of girls in schools so that they can complete and access other higher levels of learning.
- Promoting active dialogue with local and national authorities and other development partners in relation to policy and practice with regard to girls, women’s education and training.
- The need to focus on women’s workload as it impacts girls and women’s education negatively.
- The aspects of monitoring and evaluation are also highlighted.
Ireland Aid has, since 1997, been providing support to Ministry of Education & Culture through the Whole School Development Programme (WSDP), which aim at improving school planning, curriculum reform facilitating information and communication flows. Nevertheless, the improvement of school curriculum does not always address gender stereotyping in the curriculum. Although Ireland Aid has also supported a program for institutional building for the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE), since 2001, the support to IE does not place adequate emphasis on addressing gender concerns.
Ireland Aid‘s support has also been extended to a local NGO called “HakiElimu”, which has been advocating for the right to education for “all” children, without necessarily mentioning gender equality. For instance, the only area where women, as a category, are mentioned in the HakiElimu document, is where it emphasizes the need to also involve women in the decision making organs. HakiElimu’ s strategic plan does not indicate if there will be special emphasis on women and young girls in taking this proactive role in education governance. HakiElimu does not show clear commitment in building the capacity of both women and girls so as to be able to take proactive role in education governance. The overall objectives of HakiElimu do not seem to take gender into consideration. It assumes every child has equal needs and hence should be treated equally. Reference is however made on ‘not discriminating children’, but again, this is not disaggregated along gender, ethnic group or class. At the level of implementation, participatory-planning process mentioned young people, women and people with disabilities. At output level, women are mentioned. In other words, gender is not steadily mainstreamed in the document.
The detailed budget of Ireland Aid, as indicated in the Strategic Country Programme, shows a substantial amount of funding is committed to the education sector. So far, the budget allocation to the education sector has ranged from 11.5% to 10.2% of the total Ireland Aid budget. The bigger proportion of the resources goes to PEDP, followed by HakiElimu and lastly is TIE.
Gender mainstreaming in the Health sector activities
Ireland Aid’s support to the health sector has ranged from 16.6% to 20.5% of its County frame. The health sector receives the highest proportion of the Ireland Aid Country budget. It is undeniable that the development of gender sensitive public health services through SWAP modality, deserves credit. The Health Sector Reform programme tries to reflect elements of gender responsive statements in regards to the vision, immediate objectives, activities, and indicators. However, the development objective which states “to improve health and well being of all Tanzanians especially indigent and most vulnerable groups” is not gendered. Although the reform process aims at improving the status of the majority of the poor women and men, it does not achieve this if statements binding it to addressing equal opportunities between women and men are missing.[2] Also, this is becomes difficult if the reform process does not guarantee so. However, there was a gender focal point appointed at the ministry to carter for gender mainstreaming. The gender focal point, a nominee from the Civil Service department, was established in the ministry within the department of Administration and Personnel.
The gender focal point liaison unit established a gender working group comprising of 5 people from other departments, namely those of: HSR-PHC, Budgeting, Planning, Administration and Finance. The positioning of the unit under the department of Administration and Personnel, is perceived as a constraint in regards to the lines of responsibilities and structures of the departments at the ministry. It is assumed that this makes it difficult for the unit to provide advice to other departments. The focal point team members, have not been relieved from their normal duties. This makes them seen the gender mainstreaming obligation as an added on duty (burden). Moreover, the team members are said to possess limited capacity in gender analysis. The focal point unit serves as a liaison officer with responsibility to address the following issues:
- advise on rules and procedures on establishment governing employees of the ministry (e.g., looking at equal rights opportunities in relation to promotions, training, leave, allowances, housing, benefits to family including spouse etc);
- gender sensitisation of various groups at different levels in the health;
- influencing policy to engender it; and,
- overseeing the situation of female employees as concerns promotion, leadership positions, and participation in planning within health programmes.
The Health Sector Reform (HSR), process in Tanzania applies the Sector Wide Approach method (SWAp)[3]. The efforts in the SWAp approach have seen the creation of a Gender mainstreaming Working Group on Health Issues (GMWG), which is a donor WID/GAD sub-group for addressing gender issues in the sector.
The group is there to ensure that all government agencies and institutions incorporate or mainstream gender into their activities. As regards the health sector, the GMWG has a mandate to mainstream gender into the health sector policy, its plans and implementation and finally, its follow-up. In order to achieve this responsibility, the group has embarked on assessing how the current health sector reform process to inculcate a gender perspective. The aim is to determine opportunities for strengthening weaknesses in this regard. The GMWG has effected a two pronged approach which includes preparation of an issue paper on gender concerns in the health sector and the SWAp process; as well as taking active part in the Technical Review of the Health sector SWAp process. The issue paper dealt with the following aspects:
- the creation of a framework for gender analysis of SWAp for the Health sector; and,
- application of the proposed gender analysis framework to the Tanzania Health sector Review process.
A gender focus is critical in the development of any sectoral package in order to ensure that the specific needs of both women and men are met by the service offered. This is often a barrier to understanding the importance of gender as a factor of disadvantage in health and health care. According to the information above, the Health Sector Review process had a team that was involved in making sure that the M&E indicators in the health sector were gender sensitized. In addition the Health sector MTEF is regarded as being relatively gender sensitized.
Ireland Aid has continued to support Ministry of Health’s (MoH) efforts in transforming public health care services from its predominantly supply-driven role to becoming more responsive to health care needs and demands of all Tanzanians. Ireland Aid’s support to the health sector focuses on improving the health and well being of Tanzanians, especially those “most at risk”. Although the general objective does not mention gender, the specific objective focuses on supporting gender-sensitive public health services. The support is expected to encourage health systems to be more responsive to the needs of ‘people’ in order to raise the quality of life and alleviate poverty. This strategic focus has generalised terminologies like ‘most at risk’, ‘people’ and ‘well being of Tanzanians’, this terminology ignores the gender aspects as outlined in the report by Ms. Cathy Gaynor (1995).
Ireland Aid also supports the National Tuberculosis and Leprosy Programme (NTLP). This support is achieved through basket funding. However, the gendered nature of the diseases is not specifically addressed in the way the programme documents present this support. Support from Ireland Aid is also being targeted at up-scaling of Insecticide Treated Nets (ITNs) for malaria[4] prevention and control. The National Malaria Control Program (NMCP) implements the provision of ITNs. Furthermore, support from Ireland Aid is directed towards the mainstreaming of HIV/AIDS in the health sector. As in other programmes, the Country Strategy document is hushed on the gendered nature of HIV/AIDS, especially in regards to such dynamics as observed in areas of reproductive rights and sexuality.
Support to District Health Services development
As mentioned above, the thrust of the government reforms is decentralization of decision making and provision of health services to the districts, with the aim of bringing quality health care services closer to rural communities in Tanzania. The Ireland Aid support to district health services acknowledges the biological role of women, as well as recognsing the importance of providing adolescents with information and methods of prevention of STI and in particular, HIV. On the other hand, it does not adequately reflect the different gender needs, it treats all adolescents as having similar health and reproductive health needs. Likewise it talks of district health staff without disaggregating their particular concerns in terms of gender as if they do not have different gender roles to play for as far as reproductive issues, STI and particularly, HIV are concerned. Generally, as in the previous sections, although gender is acknowledged as being a relevant variable in the health sector support, this recognition is improperly built-in into the various elements of the support targeted at this sector.
Gender mainstreaming in the Agriculture sector
The agricultural policy, inaugurated in January 1997, was brought about for four main reasons. These were: the merger of policies on agriculture and livestock; changes due to economic policy transformation; initiation of a new policy on land where farmers are advocated to change land use patterns; and the emphasis on environmental management and protection. On gender issues, the policy’s paragraph 2.4.3, states that, “It is estimated that the ratio of males to females in the agricultural sector is 1:1.5. Women in Tanzania produce about 70% of the food crops and also bear substantial responsibilities for many aspects of export crops and livestock production. However, their access to productive resources (land, water, etc.) supportive services (marketing services, credit and labour saving facilities, etc.) and income arising from agricultural production is severely limited by social and traditional factors.”7 In detailing the role falling upon the Ministry, the policy states that; “the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives will endeavour to target its extension, research, training and credit services to rural women in order to enable them to contribute effectively to agricultural production”.8 The question that looms large here is, how many of the staff in the ministry are capable of such a feat? How many of the staff, work groups, departments have the capacity to effect the mainstreaming of women farmers in agricultural activities? Among strategies chosen within the policy to alleviate the situation, are, labour saving technologies, cooperation among women, and “supporting their participation in planning and management of development programmes.”9
The ministry has previously benefited from gender mainstreaming through the Agricultural Sector Programme Support, ASPS, which resulted from an agreement between the governments of United Republic of Tanzania and that of Denmark. Through the ASPS, gender aspects were expected to be addressed at a “more overall level through the proposed support to institutional strengthening within Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperatives.”[5] The programme was to “ensure that activities carried out under the ASPS give due consideration to issues of supporting the integration of women into the development process”. The support was supposed not to benefit the Danida supported activities only, “but … also enhance the gender awareness of staff in the Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperatives in general” In the Gender Analysis and sensitisation sub-component, of the Institutional Strengthening in the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Agricultural Sector Programme support (ASPS)[6], it is mentioned that: “although gender issues at grassroots levels, at project level, in desegregation and collection of data, in courses, in research, and in extension activities, have been handled in preceding engagements, additional efforts are required”. The need was for full integration of gender issues into all activities engaged by the Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperatives.
According to the present Agricultural Sector Development Programme, cross-cutting issues are addressed in paragraph 7.2., as a sub-programme 5.2. The sub-programme mentions vaguely that that guidelines shall be developed on mainstreaming of cross-cutting issues in agriculture. One of the outputs in 7.2.4., is “incorporation of gender issues in agricultural development interventions and in DAPs”, and interventions on gender incorporation of gender issues are given a total USD 579,690 in the 2002/03 to 2006/07 period. A component on development of “special programmes within DADPs for gender empowerment and access to credit, land, technology, markets and information developed.” is vague on how gender mainstreaming is to be effected.
However, recently (in April 2002), a sub-programme on gender mainstreaming was designed with facilitation from the MCDWAC. The sub-programme addresses gender mainstreaming in the overall ASDP programme[7].The sub-programmes aims at the following: institutionalisation and operationalisation of gender in agricultural development; establishing women and gender units in the organisational structures of lead ministries of central government and PORALG; gender awareness creation; establishing women and gender units in each district; guidelines for research; analysis of existing sectoral policies; and training of Heads of Gender Units. Nevertheless, gender insensitivity is evident as regards the formal institutionalisation of location of responsibility on gender mainstreaming. There is no longer a gender focal point nor a gender team, but instead ad-hoc facilitation. This was caused by severe shortage of staff at the ministry after redundancy measures.
Moreover the larger part of the programme content, outputs, activities, and general design is weak in gender mainstreaming. Moreover, the most common weakness in this sector is also lack of gendered outputs even where gendered objectives exist. Ireland Aid support towards the agricultural sector comprised of 7% of the Ireland Aid CSP frame. As in the previous section, strengths are visible in terms of use of gender specialists, whereby various gender specialists have been engaged in the agricultural sector over the recent years. At one time there was a gender focal point attached to the Danida funded ASPS. Irrespective of these measures, the agricultural sector has had nominal impact on gender mainstreaming.
As we have seen above, the Government of Tanzania through Ministry of Agriculture & Food Security engaged the preparation of the Agricultural Sector Development Strategy (ASDS), which initially had a lot of shortcomings especially of excluding the small holder farmers, pastoralists, women and the HIV issues. Ireland Aid has contributed a great deal in reshaping the strategy as it was involved in the taskforce under the Food and Agriculture Sector Working Group (FASWOG) to oversee the finalization of the ASDS. Ireland Aid has also budgeted £ 450,000 to support the program out of which £ 50,000 has been disbursed in 2001 through its Support to Preparation of the ASDS. The Ireland Aid support strategy has included gender as one of its special focus. It has recognized the role played by women and youths in the agricultural development. It has ensured that they will be included in the consultation workshops and become the major beneficiaries. However, it does not mention the strategies that will ensure that women and youths will be included or the kind of benefits they are expected to get as a specific group. When gender is included at strategy level, it but misses in the definition of the project overall goal and specific objectives it becomes problematic to measure the progress or even develop indicators to measure progress. In addition, focus on poverty alleviation just aim at raising the income of rural poor. This is gender neutral focus (e.g., it was supposed to put more emphasis on women and youths).
It is obvious that the Ireland Aid policy on gender mainstreaming, acknowledges the central role which women play in agriculture in most of the developing countries. Overall, the need to pay special attention to women in the agriculture intervention has been underscored in the document as regards this sector. Methodical incorporation of gender at macro-meso, technical and research and, at farm levels is also emphasized. Nevertheless, key gender aware actions to be addressed in agriculture support should include the following: women’s agricultural tasks in programs and projects compared to men; interventions that increases women’s workload; increase women’s access to resources and services such as credit, technology, training and extension; constraints faced as to the measures required to overcome them, which are: women’s control resources and benefits from their participation in programs; and, inclusion of gender disaggregated data in project monitoring and reporting.
Gender Mainstreaming in the Natural Resource programmes
Irish Aid’s support to the natural resources sectors is focused to the Eastern Zone Client Oriented Research and Extension (EZCORE), and the Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation and Development Program (TCZCDP).
Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation and Development Program (TCZCDP)
This project has been developed by the Regional authorities in Tanga, who have resolved to apprehend the decline of the coastal resources, in alliance with the Eastern African Regional Office of the World Conservation Union (IUCN-EARO), and the Ireland Aid. The project is implemented by the Regional Administrative Officer’s office, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, and, the Vice-President’s Office (Environment Department). IUCN-EARO provides technical and managerial assistance. The main objective of the program was: “Sustainable use of the coastal resources of the Tanga region for the benefits of present and future generations of residents, through a series of integrated activities aimed at conservation and collaborative management of coastal resources”. Districts covered by the project are: Tanga Municipality (Mwambani-Mchukuuni), Muheza (Kigombe) and Pangani (Kipumbwi).The project was implemented in three phases: starting with Phase One, between Jan 1994 to 1997; Phase Two, between 1997 and 2000; and, Phase Three, that began in 2001.
The Mid-Term Review of PhaseThree, shows that both broad and specific objectives were generally stated although some of them talk about ‘stakeholders’ who may include men and women. Existing reports do not show whether the Phase One period addressed gender mainstreaming specifically. Similarly, the Phase Two evaluation, does not detail as to whether the process effectively involved men, women and youths in the development of and implementation of plans, except it mentions the equitable participation of men and women in the planning and implementation of management plans. Nevertheless, the evaluation showed that there were calculated involvement of gender concerns in regards to gender balanced participation of women and men in the program districts, especially in Pangani District.
In the evaluation of Phase Three, gender was included as one of the evaluation variables. However, it is not known whether the focus of the review was intentionally targeted on gender as a cross cutting issue or simply an isolated integration item (e.g., if gender was the focus, then all the result areas would have shown how gender mainstreaming trickled down from the review objective). The Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation & Management Program is an unchallenged success story for the Ireland Aid supported projects. Gender was systematically incorporated from the very beginning of formulating the project in analyzing problems, defining strategies, setting targets and developing monitoring indicators. The success of this programme has resulted from different factors: the management and project team on the ground was determined to mainstream gender; the team had the necessary skills; and, resources were sufficiently allocated to make gender mainstreaming happen. This case is a clear model for good practices in gender mainstreaming within Ireland Aid funded programmes.
The TCZCDP took into account gender concerns almost right from the initiation phase up-to the implementation phase. Phase One, was termed the “listening” Phase, it was the period wherein the programme studied the situation of the community and analyzed the community needs from the gender perspective. A participatory socio-economic and resource assessment and the stakeholders workshops were conducted, which resulted in the development of priority areas that took into account the gender concerns in the program. Phase Two was called the “demonstration” Phase. This Phase developed collaborative fisheries management plans jointly with various stakeholders in the program. The program took into account the different status of men and women in the project areas. Then, Phase Three, called the “mainstreaming” Phase, implemented what was developed in One and Two.
In Phase Three, views from different interest groups were considered focusing on improving gender equity[8] between men and women. Participatory methods were utilized in the collection and employment of gender disaggregated data in a wide range of activities. This ensured that gender equity became the focus of the project which resulted in the development of gender monitoring matrix that was used to ensure the equitable participation of women and men in the program. The gender monitoring matrix[9] developed enabled the monitoring of women participation in: analysis; decision making; negotiation; presence on committees; coastal resource use and management; and program effectiveness (e.g. material, technical, and educational assistance).
Gender mainstreaming in the District Development Programmes
Muheza District is earmarked for at least 10 years of Ireland Aid support through the District Development Programme support (DPP). At present they are completing their first 3 year DDP phase. It was observed that gender mainstreaming was somehow evident in the some of the project cycle stages. For instance at the pre-design phase (e.g., in the report of the District Appraisal Mission in 1997, cross-cutting issues were considered) consultations were held with community members including women.
It is claimed that during the development of the strategic plan, consultations were again held with both men, women and youth groups through PRA interventions. It was also alleged that objectives in the programme support documents aims at addressing women’s participation in decision making at village level, and increasing women’s capacity to address own problems through various committees at village level. It is evident in the strategic plan that the DDP overall objective states “improved and equitable access to socio-economic sources and increased production”. While the specific objective focuses at “equitable empowerment of women and men in building and sustaining their social economic life”. The programme matrix therefore has elements of gender in the form of activities targeting women (e.g., the training of village leaders in gender issues). The Master Logical Framework similarly addresses gender in the results (e.g., greater and more equitable empowerment of women and men in decision making and planning).
Gender mainstreaming was similarly somehow visible in use of gender indicators, e.g., the 1999 benchmarks or development indicators as regards education enrolment and participants in training of traders, or proportion of women in activities. The programme has also used gender specialists and women consultants (e.g., in formulation workshop of the Phase I and in a gender workshop), meanwhile there is currently a gender team existing within the council. Gender trainers (from Community Development Department – Gender Team), have been used to train councilors and heads of department. A semblance of gender activities does exist through village development committees, school committees, and water or health committees. NGO actors with a gender focus were engaged in promoting lending to women. However, the programme is relatively male dominated as regards the staffing in the council. Out of 13 departments, only 1 is lead by a woman (the Trade Department). All of the chairpersons at the District Committee, District Council, Ward Development Committee levels are male. Female chairpersons are to be found only at the hamlet (8%), village government (1%), and village committee levels (3%).
Discussions with the District Gender Team revealed that the council seems to be gender strong in regards to: attitudes towards gender mainstreaming (e.g., receptivity), and engendering of it staff (e.g., efforts to create gender awareness). Gender mainstreaming is weak a regards: policies and implementation (e.g., no gender strategy and action plan at district level in the current plans), roles and responsibilities in gender mainstreaming (e.g., staff have no formal obligations for addressing gender issues), and flexibility for change (e.g., some male staff being stiff to changes). Debatable support for gender mainstreaming was seen to be present in the following: in staffing (e.g., no apparent targets for balancing the sexes in recruitment), in room for change (e.g., limited acceptance to desired changes to accommodate mainstreaming), and in decision making.
In total, although the Gender Team exists it is plagued with problems such as: lack of resources for coordination; non-formalised existence (e.g., not institutionalized); limited departmental membership (e.g., not all departments represented); and, inactivity in the current phase (e.g., limited action). Moreover, gender mainstreaming has been mostly about following up on quantitative participation of women in certain activities (e.g., committees), and forgetting the promotion of qualitative aspects. Monitoring of changes and improvements has been generally lacking. Although cross cutting issue are said as being instrumental in endorsement of plans, there are no practical guidelines for gender mainstreaming at the district level. Perhaps these guidelines shall soon be achieved through the gender strategy and action plan designing exercise to be engaged in early June 2002[10].
Gender mainstreaming in the Ministry of Community Development Women
Affairs & Children
Ireland Aid is funding a project at the Ministry of Community Development, Women Affairs & Children (MoCDWAC), under the title “Capacity Building for Promoting Gender mainstreaming and Women’s Development”. The principle input in the 3 year project is focused towards: training, equipment, technical support, funding for publishing, workshops and participation in international fora. Although the project was supposed to have begun in July 2000, the agreement was signed in May 2001, and funds released in May 2001 (utilisation of the first released funds, Shs. 106 million, started in June 2001).
The rationale to support the Ministry was motivated from the fact that it was viewed as enhancing the mandate of the ministry “to promote coordinate and monitor activities designed to ensure that women benefit fully from mainstream development programmes, particularly in the four critical areas”. A second argument was to empower the ministry “to carry out this mandate by providing it with necessary resources”. The support therefore is aimed at enabling the ministry, “particularly the Gender and Women’s Division to strengthen its own organisation and skills, prepare a strategy and action plan to promote gender equity and women’s development in consultation with other stakeholders, initiate strategic studies and reviews, and build the confidence of the other stakeholders to work with MCDWAC to carry out its mandate”.
Overall it can be said that the nature of the support is obviously very solid evidence of the gender mainstreaming goal within the Ireland Aid development cooperation endeavour. This support could be judged as a crucial milestone in measuring the commitment by Ireland Aid to engender development efforts in the partner country. It is a measure of good practice in promoting gender mainstreaming through a formalised and institutionalized channel.
However certain provisions in the current arrangement have to be overhauled in the next phase (e.g., reducing the implementation role of the ministry, creating more gender specific indicators for each activity, more pro-active sharing of information, the ministry assuming a more coordinating and supervisory function as regards gender mainstreaming, etc).
The overall objective of the current project is “to ensure that both women and men benefit from the economic, social, legal and political programmes so that both women and men realize the goals of Tanzania Development Vision and the National Poverty Eradication Strategy”. The specific objectives of the project also contain some direct gender mainstreaming provisions as do the outputs and some of the activities. It is undisputable that the implementation of the above project has experienced varying reviews. While some of the ministry staff express the implementation of the project as successful, albeit slow and cautious, the development cooperation partner has viewed it as inadequate and sometimes grossly wanting. The dissatisfaction has at times prompted Ireland Aid to question whether the current design is conducive to both partners. While the ministry points a finger at restricted flexibility in the implementation pace, Ireland Aid has questioned whether funding has been utilized effectively and timely.
It is the opinion of this consultant that changes and modifications are necessary in the next CSP. These changes are called for in regards to especially the implementation modalities. Since the MCDWAC, as all sector ministries are currently designated or dissuaded not to handle direct implementation[11] of projects there is a strong need to replace this role through the involvement of other alternative actors (as is done through the UNDP support package).
Lessons Learned in practices for Gender Mainstreaming
The most common weaknesses in unsuccessful programmes and projects seems to be: the lack of gendered outputs in the programme/project design; absence of gender analysis training for programme/project staff; inadequate level of awareness raising among the beneficiaries; and, the absence of gender indicators for monitoring and evaluation. These were the most recurrent weaknesses within programmes/projects that appeared to be least successful in gender mainstreaming.
Factors that affect efforts at Gender Mainstreaming
Perhaps the most important factor that affects gender mainstreaming, is the indifference or confusion in the field as regards the Tanzania Government or Ireland Aid gender mainstreaming objectives. There is at times uncertainty or poor conviction on the advantages of institutionalising gender mainstreaming, as defined in the Ireland Aid Gender and Development policy. Factors that prevent gender mainstreaming include:
- sector advisers not being directly accountable for gender mainstreaming function in their sectors;
- unavailability of resources specifically targeted at promoting or effecting gender mainstreaming in each sector;
- poor monitoring of impact or output in gender mainstreaming;
- original design of most programmes/projects not linking gender mainstreaming to either the Beijing Platform for Action, the Ireland Aid Gender and Development policy nor Tanzania’s areas of commitment as regards the Platform for Action; and,
- inadequate resources allocated for gender mainstreaming.
Nevertheless, the overall picture shows that chances for success in gender mainstreaming are improved when the project objectives, output and activities are gendered.
Nature and origin of identified problems
Most weaknesses in gender mainstreaming were caused by inadequate skills on gender analysis, and insufficient understanding of the conceptual linkages between gender and macro level project activities. As evident from the review, weaknesses were mainly experienced as concerns the creation of gendered objectives, gender outputs, training of women, gender awareness raising, formulation of a gender sensitive activity approach, promotion of linkages with gender positive actors, and use of gender indicators, where most of the reviewed projects were weak. These problems arise due several factors. These are:
• gender insensitive cultural subsystem within programme/project management (e.g., a gender subdued management culture that places weak emphasis on gender mainstreaming and the general absence of an affirmative action policy to ease constraints on female involvement at all levels of Ireland Aid funded projects and programmes);
• poor cooperate learning environment as regards gender mainstreaming requirements (e.g., the absence of an articulate criteria or checklists for reviewing programmes/projects);
• weak assignment of tasks and responsibilities on gender mainstreaming among programme/project management or staff (e.g., inadequate location of responsibility for ensuring gender mainstreaming among the leadership);
• inadequate expertise among most project staff in gender mainstreaming (e.g., inadequately designed staff development or training programmes for increasing the level of understanding among programme staff on the methodologies and processes for gender mainstreaming in their respective sectoral areas);
• insufficient room for manoeuvre as concerns gender mainstreaming in programme/project activities (e.g., none accountable procedures among programme/project staff in mainstreaming gender); and lastly,
Main lessons in Gender Mainstreaming at the Ireland Aid Tanzania Country
Office
Lessons emanating from the current review reveal that work is required in institutionalization of the gender mainstreaming policy; the enhancement of competence and understanding of the policy and its implications for Ireland Aid funded work; and, setting in place an appropriate framework for the formulation, implementation and evaluation of programmes from a gender perspective.
Key elements in promoting Gender Mainstreaming.
• facilitating or promoting the establishment of gender teams in each of the programme or project supported by Ireland Aid;
• effecting detailed consultations with gender experts who are trained in health, governance, education, agriculture, and other relevant specializations (or vice versa), to help the Ireland Aid Country Office to establish more penetrating and effective gender mainstreaming interventions that are based on gender analysis (e.g., programme/project management should utilise gender trained consultants or experts in their normal consultancies and request these to produce a gender perspective of the work or issues they are assigned to work on. TGNP is one local organisation where such expertise is located, and therefore accessed);
• increasing awareness on the importance of gender issues and concerns to all management personnel and key staff in Ireland Aid supported projects as a prerequisite for achieving the Government’s commitment to the Beijing Platform of Action, as well as the Ireland Aid Country Office’s gender mainstreaming objectives at within the Country Strategy and programme levels (e.g., all key staff employed through Ireland Aid funded support should undergo a 2 day gender analysis and gender planning training.
• gender analysis training, for all other key project or programme staff. Such training should be regular (with new objectives and content rather than a one stop measure);
• if possible, programmes/projects could select a gender focal point among its top senior management staff who would undergo more in-depth and more intensive training in gender analysis on specific project related issues -such as gender budgeting, gender monitoring, gender analysis matrix, creation of gender strategies, etc.
Relevance, Effectiveness, Efficiency and Impact of Ireland Aid’s Gender Mainstreaming activities
Generally, the existing principles for gender mainstreaming are clearly articulated in the guiding principles for IA. This is being considered as a good practice. But, translation of these principles into operational plans, strategies; is not thoroughly done in some of the country program components. In the majority, gender is amiss in regards to: the situation analysis; in overall and specific objectives; and, more often, gets ‘smuggled’ in the strategy. As a result, gender sensitive indicators for monitoring are near always missing.
At the project level, the Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation & Management Programme has provided abundant good practices where gender has been systematically and consciously incorporated from the initial stages of problem analysis. These ranges of good practices are namely in regards to engendering of the: goals; objectives; strategies; and, development of gender specific monitoring and evaluation variables. This definitely provides sound lessons for the sector support on one effective way of how to incorporate gender in a methodical manner. The support to the Districts in developing district gender strategies, does provide additional lessons for mainstreaming gender in planning processes at this level. All three districts have developed gender strategies, carried out situation analysis, and topped this with capacity building of the district team.
Gender Budgeting?
A brief overview of the Ireland Aid Country Strategy budget reveals that gender is not articulated as a specific factor in the budgeting process. The observations indicate that it is assumed that gender aspects shall have been mainstreaming in all budgetary items. Nevertheless, a detailed review of the same budget reveals that, the only readily observable itemized budget for gender capacity building is the allocation directed to the Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children. This item, a sub item in governance section, has an annual budget allocation equivalent to 0.2% of the total annual budget for the country program. This is indeed an inconsequential amount. Moreover, still, there is no separate funding to enable the HIV/AID & Gender Adviser have a separate budget to support mainstreaming activities including building the capacity of senior staff, Programme Officers and other support staff in the Embassy.
Perhaps, the only allocations where gender budgeting might be given a benefit of doubt is in regards to the programmes where gender mainstreaming has proved to be successful, e.g., TCZCDP, in District Development Programmes, the Ministry of Health, and the Ministry of Agriculture & Food Security[12].
Measures for Monitoring and Evaluating Ireland Aid’s Gender Mainstreaming
activities.
According to Cathy Gaynor’s report “Irish Aid Policy on Gender on an Operational Footing”, monitoring of gender concerns was deemed as inadequate. The report showed that “progress is not tracked in any systematic fashion” and that “information is scattered and not properly analysed or tracked internally.” However, it is evident from this current mapping exercise, that this 1995 situation has improved somewhat. Observations show that some of the programmes (e.g., the Health sector SWAp; the Education sector SWAp; the District Development Programmes; and the Natural Resources programmes), are struggling to create inbuilt mechanisms that enable the checking of whether things are going according to plan and therefore enable adjustments to be made methodically. Most of the above programmes’ staff have gained awareness that monitoring makes it possible to check assumptions against performance, and also facilitate for charting progress or achievements. Monitoring is therefore gaining credence as a method for detecting unintended results; identifying difficulties; plotting trends; accounting for resources; indicating where or how a plan should be adjusted; and lastly, for improving future practice.
Nonetheless, as far as the Ireland Aid supported programmes are concerned, the aspect of designing and using monitoring indicators in gender mainstreaming as well as the evaluation of its impact, is still ad hoc rather than routine. It is the opinion of this consultant that there is a great need for additional facilitation of regular and comprehensive monitoring of changes in Ireland Aid supported sectors and programmes (e.g., the gender specific monitoring indicators should relate to the programme aims, objectives and the specific activities being supported).
At present the Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation and Development Programme has engaged a full monitoring process right from the village level to the programme level. The system consists of both quantitative indicators (which provide insights into the implementation progress e.g., women's participation rates) and qualitative indicators (which monitor the immediate impact of the change, e.g., women's increased contribution to meetings or their increased level of confidence in various community engagements). In the same TCZCDP programme, monitoring at the district level has been designed to be effected by the district gender team members. The monitoring is structured to address at least 13 areas of concern in mainstreaming of gender (those relating to the community representation structures, e.g., women and men's experiences and interpretation of their reality; pressure of political constituencies; representative political structures; political commitment; those relating to the administrative organs, e.g., resources; policy and planning; mainstreaming of location for responsibility for gender issues; procedures; staff development; and, delivery of projects or programmes; and the third relate to knowledge development, e.g., research; theory building and methodology).
[Extracted from a report titled “Mapping of Ireland Aid’s Current Gender Mainstreaming Efforts to Implement IA’s Policy and Strategy for the Promotion of Gender Equality across Country Strategies and Programmes.” Prepared by Mr. Edward H. Mhina. GAD Consult ]
[1] paragraph 3.2.1
[2] Report on Gender Diagnosis of SDC Supported Projects. A TGNP Consultancy for the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). March 1999.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Malaria is one of the leading killer diseases that causes anemia in women and pregnant mothers which ultimately contribute to the increased cases of maternal mortality rates.
[5] Institutional Strengthening in the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Agricultural Sector Programme support (ASPS), page…25.
[6] Ibid, page…
[7] Sub Programme on Gender Mainstreaming in Agricultural Development.
[8] The level of success needs to be appreciated. For example, the participation of women in village environment committees (VECs) is nearly 40% and in the Central Co-ordination Committees (CCC) is between 25 – 38%. This very good success rate taking into consideration the nature of the coastal communities in Tanzania or even in East Africa Region.
[9] See Edward H Mhina’s Report on “Gender Roles Profile: Tongoni Village (Migombani hamlet)”. TCZCDP, December 1998. This was part of the exercise to train TCZCDP staff in gender profiling and how to create monitoring indicators and tools ffrom programme level to village level. December 1998.
[10] See Edward H. Mhina’s “Report on Establishment of Gender Strategies for Gender Mainstreaming in Muheza District Council’s District Development Programme DDP 2003 to 2006”. The report was prepared in August 2002.
[11] The current programme document between Ireland Aid and the MCDWAC mentions the ministry as the implementing agency.
[12] Tanzania Gender Networking Programme has undertaken Gender Budgeting Research in the Ministry of Health and also the Ministry of Agriculture & Food Security. The research had shown where there were weaknesses and strengths. Moreover, these ministries are among the six pilot ministries where the government has engaged a full gender budgeting exercise.
